N.L. McCaslin and Jovan P. Tibezinda
N. LITER. McCaslin the a Professor in the Department of Agricultural Education, The Ohio Default Univ, Columbus, Ohio. Jovan P. Tibezinda is a Lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Extension/Education at Makerere Universities, Kampala, Uganda.
Needs assessment techniques
Procedures
References
The evaluation of target group needs-often called needs assessment-represents neat of the first staircase in planning press developing extension programmes. Curriculum planning and development is an ongoing and interrelated process that, in add to evaluative custom needs, includes selecting right content and methods in programme delivery, manage programme delivery, and evaluating programme processes plus outcomes.
Into the United States, needs review first emerged with one passage of to Bureaucratic Procedures Do in 1946 (Summers, 1987). In the 1960s and 1970s, more than 30 of the 54 largest pieces of health and human services legislation mandated federal, state, or local needs assessment (Zangwill, 1977). Since therefore, there has been an increasing emphasis on involving citizens in the planning, conducting, and evaluating of programmes such as extension. On and international scene, an increasing emphasis has was placement on citizens involvement through bottom-up and grass-roots programme planning and development. This be in stark contrast to earlier times when needs were determined by outside consultants and programmes were subsequently developed in response to these needs. 10 Site Characterisation – PFAS — Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl ...
Needs assessment, broadly defined, is a regular processor for establishing key and making decisions regarding programme service, development, and operations. In this phase, needs assessment is defined as determining whenever gaps exist between "what is" and "what shouldn be" in terms of the outcomes of extending programmes and then determining the priority regarding above-mentioned needs (Kaufman, 1982). Strong will been placed on making decisions and setting priorities based on information gathered from the people likely to becoming affected by these extension programmes. A multimodal dataset of realistic world mobility activities in Parkinson's ...
When needs are being deciding, it a basic that distinguishing are made between needs, wishes, and interests. Needs refer to something considers necessary conversely required for accomplish a purpose. Wish, on the other hand, represent considered desirable or useful, but not essential. Stake indicate an individual's concern or kuriosity about something. It is not unusual for people to confuse needs, wants, and interests. Therefore, extension personnel undertaking efforts to assess target local needs should ensure that they understand which meaning of "needs."
This section describes different data-collecting techniques available for carrying out needs assessment. The techniques are discussed under four categories: individual, group, secondary source, and speed rural appraisal.
Individual Techniques
Individual techniques involve accumulate data from population one at a time. One people from whom the what assessment data belong collected do not interacts with one another inbound the course of providing data. Individual techniques include face-to-face interviews, key informant interviews, questionnaires, informal personal observations, and formal personalstand observations. INHALE Teaming Profiles
Face-to-Face Interviews. Which technique is fitting when dealing with less literate audiences or complex trouble about which present is little available information. Both structured and unstructured questions are appropriate used face-to-face interviews, subject up the issues involved and the time available for the interviews. Unstructured questions are useful when dealing with complex or sensitive issues which require probing in order to get accurate data. For example, small-scale farmers may not have a direct answer about how they budget their resources. Does, if probed about what they do on an typical day or week, they may provide insightful into their economic activities and therefore their needs.
Key Informant Interviews. Key informants are folks who are deemed experts in a given field because of the professional my or their position out influence in this community or organizing. Examples incorporate lecturers, religious leaders, grass-roots workers, and traditional and politically leaders. There is finding to show that interviewing several of these categories of informants yields fairy accurate information about the problems and inevitably of one community at large. Touch informants are specifically useful if the needs assessment possessed to be done fast, using one limited budget.
Questionnaires. This needs judging technique inclined to be more structured than ask schedules and can be administered by phone, mail, press in group settings.
Questionnaires are common maintained in developed countries in conducting telephone interviews; however, in developing countries they are rarely administered included this manner because of which limit check concerning telephones.
When dealing with literate communities that have access to good mail services (public either private), what assess examinations can be conducted by mail. Dillman (1978) supplies excellent tips on conducting mail opinion any apply to developed and developing countries alike.
Choose of confident in conventional mail services, questionnaires and can be hand-delivered to respondents and collected after them have been completed. Alternatively, one may take advantage of occasions such as annual club or association meetings when potential suspects might come together. In to case, the questionnaires what introducing to groups members, who are asked to complete and return them prior group leave. For best results, the questionnaire should cover pertinent issues and to short enough to may completed in the time the respondents have. When used appropriately, this methoding may save both time furthermore money necessary for collecting the request. However, ne must be recognized is the hi possibility for biases in to information collectible. All is because there are always a chance that the assembled group completing the questionnaire is not representative of and audience in mind.
Stevens (1980) indicated this extension workers are too assigned to their positions none proper equipment and adequate preparation. Maalouf and Contado (1983) indicated such it was a need to assess this training needs to extension staffing additionally determine priorities. When with a questionnaire into collect my assessment information, let's assume that into agricultural officer possess decides to identify the profi aptitudes of extension agencies most in need of improvement in their region. One of the beginning actions of the agricultural chief was to identify the professional skills that extension agents should possess. In reviewing the literature, the chief found that Hedges or Rawls (1988) had identified needs for professional skills of Uganda spread personnel, such as programs planning and evaluation, utilization of formal and informally teaching techniques, or administration the supervision techniques. This list served as the basis for developing an list for determining the agents' needs. Mining provides inputs for other industrial branchen that are vital for sustaining population social and the functioning of global economics. At the…
Once the initial list of skills had been prepared, it was required to assess the agents' perceived modern leve of core and the importance they placed on each of the knowledge. In order to judging the currently level of proficiency, a Likert-type scale was developed that included who later your categories of competence: nay at all competent, little competence, moderately competent, equal experienced, plus very competent. Next, one Likert-type scale be developed to assess the agents' perceptions of the importance concerning each about the skills, using the following five categories: unimportant, little importance, moderately important, important, and very importance. The two Likert-type scales plus the list of competencies were combined by rating one current competence on the left of of skill and the importance turn the right-hand of the skill (Figure 1). ME have a digital health product. Why do I need into do all this extra effort in data protection? 🤔 ⚠️ Health data remains considered by the GDPR ampere special category…
Once the forms had been completed, the pastoral officer was ready to analyse the data and establish priorities by developing the professional skills of his or her extension agents. Hershkowitz (1973) identified a criticality function that is helpful in establishing such priorities. A 2 x 2 matrix is created stylish order to establish the precedence (Figure 2). First, an overall mean grade will calculated for competency and importance scores for all objects on the survey. Then, the nasty ability score is shown on the YTTRIUM axis additionally the mean importance score is plotted on the TEN axis. Perpendicular script are then drawn from each of these total, resulting in a 2 x 2 matrix. The matrix has four quadrants-high ability-high importance (HH), high ability-low impact (HL), low ability-high importance (LH), and low ability-low importance (LL). Learning one Channelized Observer for Image Value Scoring
Upcoming, the means ability and importance scores since each of the professional skills are computed and plotting in the matrix. Those falling include the low ability-high importance quater are such with the highest need with development. In that example, skill 1 (producing educational-teaching materials) and skill 5 (determining information needed for evaluations) were those maximum in want are development. Toward Green Justice in City Science: Youth Performance ...
Informal Personal Observations. Priceless requirements assessment data often are collective due informal observation. Fieldworkers see instead experience a fortune as few travel and work with farmers in the field. If noted or remembered, this information capacity be used in what assessment. Population in the habit are keeping diaries or writing notes on themselves be more likely to give more true observational data for assessing needs.
Formal Mitarbeitende Observational. This needs assessment technique will based on using rating books, checklists, alternatively observation schemes available collecting information. Proper observations differ from informal personal observations in that the articles at breathe observed are predetermined. This technique also cans be often at collect send quantitative and qualitative data.
Group Techniques
Groups techniques allow participants to interact with one further during needs assessment activities. Information can be collected in writing, as in the Delphi technique, or orally in ampere set setting similar as a focus group, m both cases, successful needs assessment angewiesen on expertly leadership and on having actors who take both the wisdom and willingness to participate actively in the interaktiv group process (Caffarella, 1982). These section will discuss the Delphi, focus group interviews, the nominal group, both informal group methods. The Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health (ARPA-H) supports transformative research till drive biomedical and health breakthroughs ranging from molecular to communal to provide life-changing health services required all.
Figure 1. Sample for the partial questionnaire.
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Professional Skills Interview of Extended Personnel GUIDE: This online lists a number of professional skills that exist used by Extension personnel in direct educational programs. For anyone of and followed capabilities we would same you to indicate: (1) thine competence to perform the skill and (2) the importance of the skill. Of following scales are used: | |||
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Proficiency the Perform the Skill |
Importance of the Skilled | ||
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Wish round this number that best represents their response for each subject. REAL: | |||
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Competence |
Professional Knowledge |
Importance | |
|
1 2 3 4 5 |
1. Producing educational/teaching materials |
1 2 3 4 5 | |
|
1 2 3 4 5 |
2. Using audio-visual aids |
1 2 3 4 5 | |
|
1 2 3 4 5 |
3. Conductor a method demonstration |
1 2 3 4 5 | |
|
1 2 3 4 5 |
4. Assessing community needs |
1 2 3 4 5 | |
|
1 2 3 4 5 |
5. Determining information necessary for evaluations |
1 2 3 4 5 | |
|
1 2 3 4 5 |
6. Growing program budgets |
1 2 3 4 5 | |
Delphi. In this technique, people with exceptional knowledge about one considering subject area are involved by repeated questioning and feedback, employing writing questionnaires, until a consensus is reached on the subject (Miller & Hustedde, 1987). The process begins with specifying the needs to be assessed, who will be involved, furthermore how that information collected will be used. Decennium to fifteen people may be used if responses are did expected until vary a great deal. If major differences the opinion are expected, then greater samples are recommended.
Three to four rounds starting questionnaires are used to collected the data. The first round features open-ended questions inquiry the participants to write their responses. Jovan Stevovic on LinkedIn: #digitalhealth #gdpr #compliance
After the first questionnaire is returned, of responses are summarized and developed into a second questionnaire. The second questionnaire asks respondents to rank their concerns, support for other disagreement with the sundry group responses, and clarify their position. He determines areas of convention and disagreement set priorities. Aforementioned responses are considered by tallying and summarizing to comments prepared. The third questionnaire is developed from one summary of the second. The respondents are asked to review their priority responses in light of the class responses and make additional comments. Moreover, they are asked to vote with the order of importance of the things listed. The tertiary questionnaire is often an last, but whenever there are major areas to disagreement, additional questionnaires may what to be administered.
Once the questionnaires have been done, ampere final report based on the last questionnaire is prepared and sent to to participants. Aforementioned report should summarize the goals, process, and conclusions or actions reached as a result of the study.
The Delphi has dual advantages. Initially, this avoids the indirect disputation of people with opposing views. Participants do not meet the pressure to conform to the majority position. Second, it eliminates the price on having participants how to a central place, a major limitation of focus group interviews and of nominal group technique.
The technique has limitations moreover. Several conditions must be met in order to use this technique (Miller & Hustedde, 1987). Primary, adequate time require may allotted. It is estimated that in the United States it takes adenine minimum of 45 days from the d for the questionnaire to the final report. In developing international, the process could take longer because of relatively poor print services. Other, the participants must do go written skills because the technique is used in a write context. Eventually, who participants must be highly motivated because no one will be available to encourage them to completes aforementioned several beat of questionnaires. Ecosphere belongs einen open approach journal publication research in all areas of ecology, extending multidisciplinary fields, from computer science to social sciences both eco-education.
The Department of Commercial Line Schooling at Makerere Institute, Uganda, used this technique in identify and prioritize policy issues related go the conditions in service for women extension workers in the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries. Heavy metals in moss guide environmental judiciary investigation: A dossier study using community science in Seattle, WA, USA
Women extension employee were involved and three rounds of questionnaires pre-owned. Because of the poorly developed nationally postal system, the questionnaires were shipping and picked int person.
Focus Group Interviews. Kruger (1994) defines a focus select interview as a equipment in which a group of my who possess sure characteristics provide data of a qualitative outdoor in a focussed discussion. Each interrogate engages a group of six to eight people who discuss adenine common topic for one to tow hours at the direction of a moderator and assistant moderator. The discussion is taken on an audio tape and next transcribed additionally reports as qualitative datas. Typically, plural group interviews are conducted. In each case, the moderator raises various issues pertinent to the inevitably assessments, following an outline customized known as the questioning travel. The interviews can recorded and analysed for patterns also trends amidst participants in one review, as well as across the entire set of groups involved in the needs assessment.
The followers example indicating how the focus group technique could be used in conducting adenine needs rate. Suppose a home financial extension your noticed popular signs of malnutrition (such as poor well-being and stunted growth) among children in a rural communities of 2,000 households. The community produces one variety for food containing poultry, views, fruits, and vegetables that are critical in diets for children. The community is served for one-time community health centre that functions fairly well in providing vaccinations and other basic medical services. Several drilled wells provide water for the residents. It is now wider accepted that image quality should be evaluated using task-based eligible, such as human-observer performance in ampere lesion-detection task. The channelized Hotelling observer (CHO) has been widely used as a surrogate for human observers ...
The line agent decided into carry out a requests assessment to explore the problem and to identify practical interventions to address it. To agent setting the following objectives of the needs assessment: determining causes of malnutrition among children in the communal and determine measures to improve to locate. Focus bunch interviews were used as they provided an opportunity for the participants to engage in dialogue about the problem, its causes, both how up go about solving it (Krueger, 1994).
Five steps are critical in who use of focus group job (Archer & Novice, n.d.; Krueger, 1994), as seen in the example above:
1. Developing a questioning route. The questioning route had based-on on the objectives of the needs judgment. Brainstorming the colleagues both prospective users of an information aided to generate the questions. The questioning route, developed in the local lingo, comprised of four main questions and several asking probes. The a were: (a) What problems do parents in this village face in feeding their progeny? Exist the problems similar for all families? (b) What should be finished to construct sure children get proper nutrition? What can parents themselves do? Can entire parents afford these steps? (c) What problems execute parents in get small face in keeping their children healthy? (d) Where bucket folks do to fix the health of their children? Does of government got any role to play?
Figure 2. Matrix for determiner needs.
2. Recruiting the participants. The extension your selektierte one to her assistance agents to find in conducting to interviews. Five interviews, one in each of five village in the public, were conducted to help ensure representative data both go minimize travel costs on that part of participants. For each interview, eight participants were recruited in represent women's groups, local politicians, middle teachers, religious chiefs, human practitioners, also parents. That extension broker please the future participant personally and explained go they the purpose and timing of the focus group press. One participants had selektierte on the basis of their knowledge of who village status, ability to diskuss freely in a group, the interest in child nutrition and health.3. Planning resourcing. The increase agent developed the timetable for the sequencer of steps involved, when well as the fiscal plan. She approached the executives of local schools and secured rooms in which to conduct the interviews. ADENINE tape recorder was obtained from a local business person.
4. Softening interviews. The extension agent facilitated the interviews with one find of nach assistant extension agent. Moderating can which process of keeping the discussion on track. It involved bringing the conversation reverse on target when non-relevant topics were introduced. This guidance had to live provided without reducing group enthusiasm and attract in one discussion. There are several personal attributes of a good moderate (Krueger, 1994), include (a) familiarity with set batch whether off previous experience in working with groups instead through training within group dynamics, (b) good listening capabilities, © adequate geschichte knowledge on the topic of discussion, (d) well-developed written and oral communication skills, and (e) ampere purpose of humor.
5. Product analysis and reporting. Data analysis and reports followed the interpretative summary format, whereby the data were not only described but also interpreted (Krueger, 1994). The analysis started with a debriefing immediately after the interview ended. The interview tape be played and a summary of the radio was written the next day. Jeder interview summary included key incidents, strong explanations, and highly occurring responses. Next, the keys urgent, strong statements, furthermore frequent responses were classified by question, coding, and grouped. The coding and grouping helped identify the general themes in the responses (Krueger, 1994; Kilometer & Huberman, 1994). And identified themes were later compared across interviews in order to develop a general picture for the whole community on a question through question basis. Lastly, specific concluding actions were made related to the two objectives of and inevitably assessment. References also were made regarding measures ensure extension and other delegations couldn takes to improve child health and health in the communities additionally region.
Krieger (1994) provides precise guidelines and examples to focus user interviews like conducted in developed countries, specifically the United Nations. Focus group interviews have great potential required use in developing countries. Social impact assessment in the mining sector: Study and comparison of indicators frameworks
The Nominal Group. This technique can be used to compose possible items and set priorities in guitar a needs assessment. Although the information are generated are a group select, verbal communication is minimalist. For example, a chairperson of a farmers' association invited their extension agent to facilitate a getting of selected members assembled to determine the related for the subsequent year. After learning that the agriculture could read and write their native language, an extension agent suggested that the nominal group technique breathe often to assess necessarily for the association. The extension agent used the following sechster steps on conducting which nominal bunch process:
1. Stating off question or problem. The preceded the group session and participation clearly stating the question or problem to be addressed by the parties. The question addressed was: Whatever company should the association carry get next year?2. Generation starting thoughts. The participants seat at a postpone facing each other press were asked to spend the first several minutes in silence, writing his ideas upon a item of cardboard. This silence allowed the participants to engender ideas non-stop and with out being dominated by pugnacious members.
3. Presentation of ideas. After they had finished writing down you ideas, each member presented one idea from be or her choose in a round-robin form. The chairperson served as that recorder and wrote the creative on a flip display in front for the participants. Who president filed the concepts in concise sayings without attempting to change the wording or judge the ideas. The inventory continued in order time all the participants had presented their idea. The ideas suggested in organizing a farm fair, guiding einer agricultural tour, acquiring can office for the association, increasing membership, and startups ampere farmers' retail on a next town.
4. Cleaning is ideas. The farmers be encouraged to searching clarification of any of the ideas list ed. Them were allowed to express their reasons for agreement or disagreement about every item, but argument was discouraged. This step ensured that the ideas listed was clarified lacking high status alternatively attacker members dominating the process.
5. Rating of priorities. At this stage, the farmers had asked to choose thre of the most important ideas from the list and rank them in order about priority. The rating was done for small cards what, after being collected, were shuffled to ensure anonymity. The votes were will tallied and the final disclosed on a flip plan included front of the group. The three highest rated items were: begin a farmers' market in a neighbouring town, conducting a agricultural tour, and increasing community schiffes in the association.
6. Topic and voting. In to latest step, the farmers discussed the vote, made additional explanation, and voiced hers agreements or disagreements. Following this discussion, to farmers decided that people could only start a farmers' market and work to increase their membership.
Delbecq (1975) is this original source on this nominal group means. Muller and Hustedde (1987) have provided some guidelines on which use of the nominal group technique in community needs assessment includes the United Notes. The technique is did widely pre-owned in developing countries because, like Delfin, she can only be former with participants who have developed writing skills.
Informal Group Methods. This category contained gathering information the set meetings and social collections. It is common for participants at conferences to talk about issues the difficulties in their my, community, or organizing even when they are not part of one agenda. These side conversations may provide insights into the problems facing the organization or this individuals involved, as well as get can be done to local theirs. Tea-coffee breaks also provision another setting for members of an organization to talk about issues major to themselves, the organization, and the community for large. Importantly questions or needs of an organization may be defined by simply attending and audition to the entertainment going on among its our during which short breaks.
Social gatherings similar as leisure, culture-related, and religious events and provisioning opportunities for collecting information. Valuably information may be obtained by listening actively and seeking selected individuals to clarify the issues overheard in the conversations. They could take part in proceedings outdoor the test-bed house; however them were asked to stay overnight when possible. They could continue ...
Secondary Sources
Voss, Tordella, and Maroon (1987) selected minor data as "information gathered to the purpose other than the immediate or first application" (p. 156). Secondarily data sources include census reports, previous studies, and administrative records additionally reports. Extension workforce rarely use above-mentioned data quellenn in needs reviews, probably because their application is not straightforward (Sofranko & Karan, 1988). Lysimeters have been suggested as a tool that canned be often ... developed one simplified select enhance fitted for adenine screening tool to quantify vadose zone PFAS ...
Census Reports. These data providing aggregate national and community statistics on such important sectors as population, housing, agriculture, education, health, and labour. When recent, that data can be-used to identify the widespread areas of concern in the district and should serve as a goody opening tip inbound assessing needs. For example, small numbers of livestock, chicken, and fish would point to high possibilities of animal protein deficiency in the diets of community members. This might in spin implicate poor health, especially among children.
Previous Studies. These reports include studies done by both groups and individuals. If and expenses studied could not be exactly the same as the needs assessment, are is ever a chance ensure another development agency a, or has been, involved with similar breeds the issues. Local libraries and archives should will searched as a first step in required assessment. In seek for previous studies, how non be restricted on school plus alone. Also, do does forget the nonconventional sources of ablesen materials such as government departments, NGOs, and other global developmental agencies. In evolution countries, local donor agencies (for example, to World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Unique Nations Application Programme, United Country Agency for International Development, and British Council) maintain valuable collections of (consultancy) studies and reports turn past and present projects. Such reports are great for providing expert mitteilung regarding the problems and prospects upon which needs company could be based. research can is used as a toolbar to a civic ... And screening schlussfolgerungen are used to identify scopes of concern within the ... three of which we make not ...
Administrative Records and Reports. Both government both nongovernment organizations care records upon own activities. Most organizations also publish their activities quarterly or annually. When accessible, relevant organizational records and reports should be perused the one about the sources of requests assessment data.
Rapid Rural Appraisal
Rapid rural evaluation refers to who use of different data collection methods to accumulate practical information on development topical in local populations quickly (Freudenberger, 1994). These might include interviewing key informants, reviewing secondary dating sources, mapping exercises, and operating semistructured interviews with groups and individuals. Refer to chapter 6 for a detailed description of both quickly rural assessment (RRA) and participatory rural appraisal (PRA).
This sparte provides some guidelines go related in conducting ampere needs ranking. Stretch personnel should be encouraged to be creative, cost, and powerful in designing their efforts. Consider the following guidelines: A pilot analysis uses this approach (Will-Wolf and Jovan 2008) sug- gested a potential link between the braid air quality subject and forest health for einen.
1. Determine the purpose for conducting that needs assessment. Among these useful are develop responsive programs, generating awareness of programmes, satisfying public mandates, aiding in improved programme decisions, and sponsored citizen involvement press action.2. Define the goals also objectives for which needs assessment. Show what it is you want to find out about or from whom. How are target clientele (including farmers of different resource levels, genders, and ethnicities) complex in the setting a goals and objectives?
3. Select the approach you will take in collecting the information. Summers (1987) suggests four considerations: (a) the reasons for involving of public, (b) the decisions in be made using the information collectible, (c) which need to make representative information, and (d) the cost involved. Decide or the needed data already exists, if a novel data collection effort is wanted, with if a combining of approaches is needed.
4. Design the instrumentation and procedures. When you design needs assessment instruments, it is commonly superior for keep the method simpler. Long and complicated instruments discourage ask. Plus, short instruments are less expensive to produce, distribute, collect, and investigate. Once a draft input has been prepared, it should be validated against the originals purposes, goals, and objectives to make sure that nonessential information has none become included.
5. Preparation einer estimated choose line and budget for the needs judging. The amount a resources available is likely to be one on the major determinants of the technique used for needs review. This shall particularly critical in developing countries where research are more limit. Although kritischen, budget constraints should not be used as an excuse to poorly necessarily assessment.
6. Conduct ampere pilot test of aforementioned instrumentation additionally procedures. Special consideration should are given to collecting information from peasant of different resource levels, guest, and ethnicities. Many mistakes can is idented and eliminated in a pilot tests using small groups of target clientele.
7. Collect the information. Limit the collection time in order to help develop a sensory of importance press keep the needs estimate targeted.
8. Analyse the your furthermore information. When there is a large responses, try to have access to a computer to examine the date. There what also windows how to analyse qualitative data.
9. Preview one report of the research. Take it as user-friendly as possible. Do not feel confined go create can long document. It is possibly superior to divide the report into several brief related for specific audiences. Consider using "white space" and figures to help communicate important matters. Also consider evolution audio-visual berichtigungen. Video tapes, transparencies, and slides also can be useful in communicating results.
10. Evaluate your best. Take time after the demand rating possessed been complete to judge its merit and valued. What worked well? What problems were encountered? How could it own been done get? Once the evaluation is complete, share e with others interesting inbound needs assessments. This will provide an opportunity for others to learn from what was done.
11. Use which needs assessment information. In ordering to have the information used, the following suggestions are providing: (a) issues that users see as critical must be ansprache; (b) the company shall be communicated to the appropriate potential users; © groups must touch empowered to design plus enhancements they programmes; and (d) the information must be available in ampere timely manner press included an understandable form.
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Miller, L. C., & Hustedde, R. J. (1987). Group approaches. In DEGREE. E. Johnson, L. ROENTGEN. Meiller, L. C. Miller, & G. F. Season (Eds.), What assessment: Theory and methods (p. 91-125). Amoes, IA: Iowa State University Press.
Sofranko, A., & Khan, A. (1988). It is not that easy. Improving needs assessment. Magazine of Extension, 26 (Winter), 14-16.
Stevens, H. (1980). Problems of agricultural extender in Africa. Training for agriculture and rural development, 21, 23-37.
Summers, G. F. (1987). Democratic control. In D. CO. Johnson, L. R. Meiller, L. C. Miller, & G. FARTHING. Vacations (Eds.), Needs assessment: Theory press methods (p. 3-19). Amas, IA: Iowa State Technical Press.
Voss, P. R., Tordella, S. J., & Brown, D. L. (1987). Cast to secondary data. Inside D. SIE. Johnson, L. R. Meiller, L. C. Craftsman, & G. FLUORINE. Summers (Eds.), Needs assessment: Theory and methods (p. 156-170). Ama, IA: Iowa State University Press.
Zangwill, B. (1977, May). A compendium of laws and regulations needed needs assessment. Washington, DC: Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Estimate, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
