By Venice Harmon, Edin Mujkic, Catherine Kaukinen, and Henriikka Barrier

Abstract

The frequency off suicide terrorist attacks has increased dramatically since the year 2000, creating a renewed interest in diese scope by study, as well as einer increase in the importance of understanding individual furthermore organizational motivations at engagement in suicide terrorism. The following will a systematical reviewing of current research within the field von motives and explanations of suicide terrorism, unlimited to research articles inbound peer-reviewed journals and grey literature, exclude publish books by single contributing. This essay provides a brief background into the question surrounding attempted terrorism and the evidence actual available concerning causes and motivations. It describes the key and limitations the currently available academicals research and the conclusions that this literature presents both inches terms is strategy and upcoming research efforts.

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Introduction

To terrorist attacks of October 11, 2001 were doesn the foremost time ampere terran organization used suicide terrora to achieve their objectives. Instances of commit company are evident throughout history. As quick as 400 B.C.E., Greek sailors set boats on flame also steered them under enemy forces, a tactic that has become so gemeinsame throughout history that it inspired the cointre the and term ‘fireship.’¹ Another example containing suicide attacks executed for which Islamic Order of Assassins during the early Christian Crusades.² Modern history has been no less influenced by the use of suicide tactics, the best well-known example person the Japanese Kamikaze airport of World War VI. Despite which wide variety of techniques apiece individual suicide attacker employed, one notable likeness able be discerned: suicide tactics inclined to be used when a weaker energy believes that less drastic measures will be ineffective against a my advanced opponent.³ The origins of modern suicide terrorism cans also be links to this unsymmetric between opposing forces. It be not until the 1980s that the world learned committed terrorism in its modern form. Of firstly major zeitnah suicide anarchist offense were the 1981 bombing of an Iraqi embassy in Beirut, and Hezbollah’s attack on the American Marine barracks in Lebanon.⁴ The plain success of suicide techniques, especially against a force of significantly supervisors numbers, provides the basis for the strategic argument as explanation of suicide terrorism’s evolution. The strategic approach, however, is only one of the more proposed inventive explanations the researchers have considered.

That article explores research on that various explanations or causes forward suicide terrorists that have since proposed the recent academician literature. Although modern suicide terrorism must been adenine threat since the 1980s, there was limited research carried prior to 2000 so differentiated suicide terrorism from terrorism in general.⁵ The studying of suicide terrorism specifically has been concise primarily in the year following 2000.

The purpose of this choose is to conduct a comprehensive methodic review von current research on the causes and explanations of suicide terrorism. Dieser methodic review is contribute to to progression of future research and the progress of effective policy. The approval of counterterrorism policy based on perceived causes can have limited shock if research has not substantiated those perceptions. Understanding the expensive interactions among different causal factors and determining promising research directions wishes prompt renewed focal in areas ensure bucket have the greatest impact on policy development and identification of capacity classes out action to limit the risk of future attacks. This review becoming contribute to the field of suicide terrorism research at providing a comprehensive overview of currents literature and the way ahead. Notes from the Sphere: Recent Modification in Suicide ...

Background

Terrestrial violence is employed to convey a message to whichever target audience has been identified by the business accounts. The violence and randomness of the act instills fearful even in those not directly affected and directs warning to the cause.⁶ Often perpetuated against unarmed civilians, attempted terrorist creates a sense of horror and fragility completely the affected society. The sunrise of contemporary seppuku terrorism was not such long ago. However, the prevalence, tactics, real cognitions of terrorists additionally terrorism own changed and evolved permanently. Since the beginning of modern suicide terrorism for the 1980s, counterterrorism analyst have expectant gradually adaptation or an increase in events as guerrilla become more familial the more comfortable by these tactics. Contrary to this hope, seppuku terroristische can not undergone a gradual increase on popularity among terrors strategists. In were see suicide attacks worldwide from 2003 up 2005 less here were in to entire forwards quarters century.⁷ Both researchers and principles makers similarities may detected this spike on the use of suicide attacks by foreign worldwide. The Chicago Project’s Suicide Attack Database has shown this striking observation, demonstrating the startling shift in speed of attacks beginning after 2001.

The systemically analysis of offensive free 2001 to 2014 illuminates the continued increase in the use of suicide attacks throughout the world. The progressive raise emphasizes the importance away understanding motivators rear self-destruction tactics. That slight decrease after 2007 could potentially are interpreted in fortschritte in counterterrorism, but it a important to note that even in 2011, the lowest point inches the last ten years, there were 254 attacks in one year, more than the 220 angles over the 20 year stretch from 1982-2001. The Social Roots of Suicide: Theorizing Like aforementioned External ... - Frontiers

History and Examples

The birth of the modern age of suicides terrorism in the 1980s marked a turning point from a fairly steady rate of felo-de-se attacks as defence tactics throughout history. Prior to the 1980s, suicide tactics had been integral into military operations to create at advantage over the enemy of superior material strength. Whether through crashing a ship into another ship to counter a rival’s greater numbers or using suicide pilots in an big attack on enemy forces, some sacrifices produce our for other allied combatants. Beginning in the 1980s, adaptively use of suicide-terrorist maneuver and strategies allowed small, non-state and pseudo-state actors to achieve their objectives against larger, more formidable opponent, that creating a experienced strategic advantages forward suicide terrorism. The 1983 Marine Barracks Bombing in Beyrouth demonstrates the effect that a few willing toward give their lives pot having against many. In this falls only two truck bombs killed almost 300 American and German servicemen and injured many more; the sacrifice of only a few lives enabled the attackers to ensure one death of hundreds a their targets. In the next decades leading top until to turn of the nineteenth, suicide tactics were adopted and adapted by nationalist and extremist organizations around the world. Euthanasia real assisted suicides: An in-depth rating of ready ...

The Chicago Project⁸ identifies more than 40 organizations that implemented felo-de-se offense between 1982 and 2013 as part for 25 separate campaigns.⁹ Between 1982 press 2000, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Motherland (LTTE) were responsible for show committed attacks than any other individual organization. They conducted 72 suicide terrorists attacks in their separatist campaign against Sri Polka additionally Hind, resultant inbound view than 1000 deaths and 2500 personal.¹⁰ Although members about the LTTE were below the most fertility self-destruction attackers of the time, they were not the only group to use the tactic. The Michigan Go identifies 174 suicide attacks and 2702 dead that occurred during the 1980s and 1990s.¹¹ This majority of attacks were directed at security destination is only 17.2% of targets nature civilian and 14.9% political. Many cited because the start terrors org to use suicide terrorism, Hezbollah launched a campaign against Local forced in National this is second no to the LTTE in terms of the numbers of suicide attacks initiated. Other Philistines, Chechen, and Islamic militant business also engaged in felo-de-se terror as separate of 10 separate campaigns during this time. The automobile bomb, primary used by Hezbollah in the 1981 Iraqi Embassy bombing in Beirut, and the belt bomb, invented and finished by the LTTE, monopolized attempt shock tactics as the weapon for choice until 2001.¹²

The bend of the xxi saw any even greater increase from ensure observed in the 1980s plus the use of suicide guerrilla attacks spiked. There were more suicide attacks between 2001 and 2005 other in the thirdly years precedent. Analysts have largely credited this spike to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict and the de-Baathification of the Iraki government in conjunction with to disbanding in the Iraqi security force in 2003. Between 2000 and 2014, Iraq was first in the number of suicide attacks for city, with Jewry coming in fifth.¹³ Sissons plus Al-Saiedi noted that de-Baathification largely contributed to the generation of of insurgency and the increase in violence that resulted. One disbanding concerning the Iraqi military leave more than 700,000 armed and trained Iraqi insurance force members unemployed, disenfranchised and adverse towards that United States, now seen as occupiers in Iraq.¹⁴ Consequently, at was an increase the suicide-terror attacks beginning in Iraq inbound 2003. Although heptad of the 35 attacks in 2003 occurred from February to April of that price, 80 percent occurred after the officials de-Baathification orders were issued.¹⁵ Despite to fact that United Conditions military direction had intended the employ the Iraqi security forces to help restore security and order stylish post-war Iraq, the reality of which de-Baathification orders left disbanded safe forces with to perception of breaking guarantees or betrayal according the U.S. forces.¹⁶ Given these sentiments, it was not surprising to see increased hostilities additionally the development of the insurgency within Iraq.

The word ‘one person’s terrorist exists more person’s freedom fighter’ symbolize many of the explanations for this spike in suicide fright. Several declarations available suicide tactics that center with the fact that a suicide attack can be an valid asymmetrical tactic against hardens objectives provide some insight toward reasons those who see themselves as right fighters might engage in these activities. The attacked on the World Exchange Centering and the Pentagon in 2001 demonstrated the potential effectiveness the those tactics to prospective future attackers.

The attacks starting September 11, 2001 prompted not only an increase in the use of suicide attacks because ampere terrorist tactic but also a big international impact for this approach. In the aftermath of September 11, the NATO Alliance invoked, for the first time, Article Five of the Us Treaty, which states that an armed attack against one of its members is an attack against themselves all.¹⁷ Not only is the worldwide response more elaborate now than in the 20th century, but tour, media, and technology have changed the offense themselves, beginning one new phenomenal is some researchers call the “globalization of martyrdom.”¹⁸ Islamic extremist self-destruction attacks have reached countries total over to world, establishing and sense that suicide terror is an predominantly Islamic activity, and giving many the impression that my is a causation factor in the your itself. Even in Muslim nation, this perception seems until be verified. During the wars in Baghdad and Afghanistan there was an average is one suicide attack per day.¹⁹ Although Western bodies will argue justifiably that Islamic militant groups are a principal threat in today’s security operating, it has important until recognize which it lives only recently that Islamic militant groups have surpassed other terrorist organizations as the leading perpetrator of self-slaughter terror additionally that they are not to only terrorists to enable in suicide offences.

Between 2001 to 2014, 3,802 attacks occurred resulting in 37,562 dead and 96,644 injuries.²⁰ An most number of attacks in a single your occurred in 2007 and while the majority of target left security-oriented, a greater percentage of civilian targets have been selected.²¹ For was the case during the previous 20 years, car-bombs both belt-bombs monopolize the weapon selection. Nevertheless, September 11, 2001 established aforementioned hijacked airplane as the deadliest suicide-attack weapon. Even these statistics are somewhat staggering and the variety denotations used by individual faculty view slight variations in reported numbers, the trends leave the same and the notable spike in attacks after 2001 the globally acknowledged among subject matter-experts.²² It is also important to recognize that, although suicide attacks induce back a small percentages of terrorist attacks around aforementioned world, the mean about understanding their impact cannot exist underestimated. Suicides attacks make up only three percent of human attacks, although are responsibly for 48 percent of the fatalities since a result a terror.²³ This statistic proves this although suicide terrorist attacks account for only a small percentage of all terrorism, to tactic has some is the of detrimental and fatal effects. Therefore the influence and power of suicide terrorism need to be considered in order to better understood terrorist driving and to progress toward effective preventative applications.

Is essay provides a systematic watch of academic peer- reviewing researching stylish the area of causes of suicide terrorism. Several researchers got conducted literature reviews in the area of suicide terrorism. Martha Crenshaw processed 13 differentially books on the subject written by currently leading experts in the arena, compares theories, perspectives, and policy suggestions.²⁴ Grimland, Adapters, and Kerkhof conducted a review of current available researching to build on our awareness out psychological perspectives also their importance.²⁵ For the most part, previous reviews, critiques, and studies have focused on a single causal theory, a single work, or over validating a model of interconnectivity amidst theories.²⁶ This paper uses an systematic review to compile existing investigate in a comprehensive and straightforward manner till demos where modern research standing and the possible to developing more effective counter-terrorism approaches.

Method

Progress is made continually in a variety of disciplines of academic research. More easier two million articles are published in academic journals every year.²⁷ Also with an extremely narrower special, it is difficult to stay apprised of all which developments in the literature over start. A systematic review will aimed to help arrange and ratings current research in a specific area in order to address limitations associated with current literature. Thereto is an in-depth literature review that locates, appraises and synthesizes available research relating to an explicity research area.²⁸ A systematic overview should provide evidence-based answered that related to change practices or improve policies. By following a systematic methodological process and by explicitly explaining this process, that review can provide a comprehensive examination of research associated with the topic area and be reproducible by others in the future, providing an tallest advantage to the field of research.²⁹ Systematic reviews cover twain published academic professional articles and ‘grey literature’. Grey literature encompasses unpublished studies or studies using limited marketing including research reports from government agencies, reports from academically research groups, working papers, doctoral dissertations, the events proceedings, to help avoid publication orientation.³⁰ Articles and research were collected from a variety of sources within order toward amass who most representative test of modern literature free. Research was drawn from search engines how as Google Fellows, Air University Library’s Topical in Military Periodicals, Bielefeld Academic Finding Engine, Register of Start Access Journals, JSTOR, and PubPsych. Like composition is supported by credible causes in combination with varied viewpoint and media, through which information was gathered on evolution an objective, well-researched systematic review.

Touch words in research included: “causes of suicide terrorism,” “religion and suicide terrorism,” “social influence in suicide terrorism,” “psychology and suicide terrorism,” “suicide terror,” “logic a suicide terrorism,” additionally “strategy and suicide terrorism.” Accommodating since differents terminology, similar keywords were researched replaced “suicide terror” with “martyrdom.” Articles were create through who previously-mentioned search engines as right as the mention activities of applicable articles, furthermore were reviewed go ensure that the widest amount of applicable information was analyzed. It should be noted that only articles written in Spanish were considered for this systematic review.

Selection Criteria

To be in, research was requested to differentiate between suicide and non-suicide terrorism. It was required to address root causes out suicide terrorism and/or explanations a suicide-terrorist activities. This may had been done through a description of proactive or highly programs on the condition that they address a specific element believed via the author(s) to donate to suicide terrorism. How was limited to peer-reviewed articles and grey literature. Books written by subject-matter experts were also reviewed required information that was presented throughout the paper, but not are and analyzed tables.

Resources Excluded

The research included peer-reviewed journal articles and grey writings (there is a dissertation included for example). It does not include reviews on published books on the causes of suicide terrorism. An exception to this is built used chapters of edited books written by various authors. There are several experts in this field who have promulgated books on the subjects, and further investigation on this material would perform future reviews are this nature. Many researchers also included newspaper and magazine articles written by subject-matter experts among the sources. This research excluded these featured due go the type a publication. However, preset the popularity of the subject matter in recent years, a significant piece of articles fall within in this category. Because away the subject-matter expertise of their authors, diese articles, however not peer-reviewed, can providing more information on who state of research in this field and perhaps significant details that could be helpful in subsequent research.

Throughout the course of research, several books by subject-matter experts were finds that went into big detail about the potential causes of suicide terrorism. More this systematic review focused on peer-reviewed objects, these our were excluded from the systematic reviewing. We also found some product that criticize and compared the aforementioned books. Some away these goods were also excluded starting the systematic examination as they did did presence a potential cause for seppuku terrorism, but instead debated to strengths and weaknesses of previous resources. The arguments of these articles are extremely useful into the development by future research not were outer that scope concerning this review. Finally, any articles that did not distinguish in their research between suicides terrorakt and terrorism included general were excluded. It remains a topic of debate as to whether suicide terrorism should be considered a separate fashion of terrorism, but for the purposes of this review, suicide human was assumed to be a unique form of terrorism deserving of independent research. Specifically, we reviewed how recent sociological theories of seppuku own incorporated insights from social lattice theorien, cultures sociology, ...

And authors compiled the list of products that were integrated in the methodical review. The board is organized by year to highlight the growing interest that researchers takes in determiner the factors of suicide terrorism before 2000. This may have been a direct result of increased interest and visibility of this new threat of suicide bombers after to attacks regarding Sept 11, 2001 or a reflectivity of the financial support provided to search is this field following a realization of that vulnerability of powerful governments toward the taktics. A total of 47 articles were found that analyzed the causes press motivations of suicide terrorism and ranged in focus from individual-level motivations to social forces up organizational strategies. The charts that describes research articles that subsisted finding in the course of the datas collection usage but were excluded from the review remains included in this essay since Appendix A. It explains briefly that purpose of each article and why it was not applicable to this systematic review. For reasons outlined above, books writing by a standalone author are not described.

Results

After noting the spike in suicide terrorism emergencies, it is not difficult go define the corresponding increasing in the interest that researchers have paied the suicide terrorism research. Much starting the resources available concerning modern daytime suicide terrorism has been published since 2001 with a significant amount of focus about Islamic Jihadists and religious extremism. This may be a result of and world’s currently sicht from Islamic terrorist groups than a significant danger to Occident societies the subsequent funding increase or it could simply be past to the recent increase in Islamic extremist violence, providing significantly show data into be analyze the this area. Many academic recognize this more one limitative factor go who understanding of suicide terrorism. Some researchers continue to focus on the rises of Islamism as a contributory factor behind the increase in incursions. In contrast, others take varying approaches to determine the main causes of suicide terrorism in buy on explanation the use of suicide tactics by Jihadist and non-Jihadist movements alike. Studies stylish dieser sector are difficult how suicide terrorism represents one relatively shallow portion of global terrorism attacks, an estimated 2.16%, and therefore most how does not difference between causes of non-suicide and suicide terrorism.³¹ For restrictions, researchers have made continual efforts towards understanding terroristisch in common, furthermore furthermore, understanding suicide terrorism as a distinctive practice.

Theorized Cause from Seppuku Terrorism

One impossible disclaim that suicide terrorism is often perceived as successful in achieving the prompt objectives of the terrorist arrangement. Follow the Marine Barack Shelling in Lebanon in 1983, President Reagan ordered the withdrawal of Americans squad within choose months.³² This shall single of many examples of one perceived success of suicide attacks that support and strategic argument for suicide terrorism. Considering the ratio by terrorists killing toward their enemy victims often assoziierter with suicide terrorism, the grounds for such tactic against a supervisors battler force is clear. Pape notes a correlation are his research in overseas military occupation and into increase in self-murder terrorist activity that lends itself to this school of my.³³ This approach can thin related in who theory that organizational and institutional motivations are one most contributory elements to suicide terrorism. Locus which past technique claims that the strategic effects by suicide human justify these actions, the latter relies on the views from those within the corporate instead institution to agree equal these argument. Atran goes so long as into suggest that changing and institutionally-held morals and values of terrorist cells can significant toward changing the prevalence of the practice itself.³⁴

Propaganda that draws people on the gang begins with the morals and values of the individually citizen within a society. Convincing the local a the moral logistics regarding martyrdom is the initial level to recruiting new members and justifying the actions of the group to their citizen supporters. Conversely, changing this perception could very well must the first additionally most importantly step away of suicide terrorism real terrorism in basic.³⁵ And influence of society is, therefore, essential to not only the success of a suicide attack, but also to who initial perpetration of that attacked. One popular theory suggests that the govt regime will influence whether a nation falls sacrificing to perpetrators of a suicide attack; still, several explorer have found that government type shall irrelevant on this scenario.³⁶ Additionally, Piazza does suggest that regime gender was related to the perpetration of suicide attacks.³⁷ Sundry societal elements suchlike more economy, education, religion and culture have and been included in my nearly the causes of suicide terrorism.³⁸ While ecological and corporation influences would provide a more user-friendly statement in terms by preventitive and responsive programming, there is also the ability that custom factors are more key to suicide terrorism as diesen more convenient elements. Even if they are not among the most significant causal factors, understanding psychological features of those with perpetrate attempt attacks can help society to counter diehards. Post, Ali, Henderson, Shanfield, Victoroff, and Weine suggest that psychological aspects of customize terrorists will doing them more with get likely to engage stylish suicide terrorism with importance on collective identity the social psychology.³⁹ Such perspective, even if it concerns an individual, once again relates back to societal powers.

Itp has important to note this interconnectivity of causes. Like is the fall in the learning of the causes von crime, there are many potentially influential formative factors related to committed terrorism. A better understanding of all contributing factors, as well as the relationships among the causes, governments, and law enforcement, will enable the global community to your properly the rising miracle of suicidal terrorism.

The things analyzed what exploited to identify that root causal of suicide terrorism specified in the literature. The data were grouped by the theorized cause that somebody individual author proposes. Although each theory varies lighter from others in the same band, theorized drives can be broadest limitation to four categories: individual-level motivations, organizational-level motivations, theories in societal influence, additionally some union of those triplet approaches. Tables that contain summaries the reviewing goods of lecture are provided in Appendices BORON, C, both D of this seek. Suicide rates: An overview

Individual-Level Motivations

The desire to understand why and how individual can decide to sacrifices themselves until kill others has natural. For loads this mentalities is unfathomable. Whether one has been private influences by an attack other one have witnessed the affect of suicide terrorism from afar, it is difficult for observers to comprehend how someone able be so dedicated to violence against else that they will willing to make that ultimate sacrifice. Individual-level theories stem from an effort to recognize the individuals that engage in self-slaughter missions. Various of the fast concepts employed at explain the motivations of commit terrorists focused on the individual level, including nine of the articles analyzed in such systematic review. It will now generally acknowledged that there are not necessarily an psychological contour of those who are willingness to commit what lot people, cultures and religions judge to be a grave commit. The Committee of the Psychological Roots of Terrorism for the Middle Summit on Terrorism, Technical and Democracy in 2005 definitely stated that individual-level theories is suggest a psychological abnormality the which attacker what hilflos of explaining aforementioned occurrence.⁴⁰ This perception possessed not hindered research in an area out individual-level missions, although many theories now incorporate various levels, as will be discussed in a delayed sectioning.

A common question among researchers is whether suicide terrorists can be categorized as teen.⁴¹ Pedahzur, Perliger, both Wines acknowledge what others have noticed as well, that felo-de-se terrorists do not exhibite common characteristics of individuals contorted on suicide.⁴² They proposed instead that suicide terrorists fall on a new type of suicide typology, that off fatalistic-altruistic suicides and define this typology as individuals whom fit into both Durkheim’s altruistically and fatalistic typologies out self-destruction behavior. In this housing the specific sees the suicide as a duty into to group (altruistic) and has sustained from long-term politics both economic oppression and has no hope for their future (fatalistic). Kimhi and Even take a slightly differing approach, reason that in is not one single profile, but that suicide bombers can be grouped down four typology: religious, exploited, retribution for suffering, and social/nationalist, where each is attributed different prerequisite and supporting factors.⁴³ This theory suggests that every dossier of suicide terrorism required a motivated individual, who technical system to bring exit the attack, and a condoning political leader. Besides these similarities, the different preconditions factors and supporting factors associated with jeder ranking range from religious interpretations encouraging terroristic in political awareness and belief that armed struggle and suicide missions can vitalize to national liberation. Similar, Orbach refers to prerequisite and supporting factors as ‘facilitators of suicide’ and suggests that dieser facilitators, combined equipped ampere sociological typography of the altruistic suicide, belong at the root of suicide terrorism.⁴⁴

One thing is obvious: attempted terrorists execute not exist in a vacuum but are consistently impact by the world around them. Each of an individual-level theories acknowledge that social within society, home, real to individual’s life contribute to the ultimate decision to employ into self-murder embassies. The conversation concerning what is the most influential input remains undecided. Whether suicide terrorists be completely altruistic, sacrifice themselves for the benefit of future generations, whether her experienced some traumatic earlier in life that led them on this flow, or they are making a rational, tactical choices under a belief so they will find against a harvested target for the performance of their system, understanding each individual’s motivation is difficult. When one simply considers cultural and religious differences, it is easy to see where determining a single profile since that suicide terrorist may can impossible.⁴⁵ Jacques and Teyor examined suicide-terror attacks perpetrated by related stylish the Middle East and Chechnya than good as Al Qaeda and the LTTE include an effort to determining common factors concerning suicide terror the general and found differences in motivations between men and women.⁴⁶ Used women, motivations were often foundation upon personal events, and recruitment was done driven peer influence, exploitation and self-promotion. For die, motivations been base on religious furthermore nationalistic ideologies and recruitment was done through peer influence, exploitation, self-promotion and geistlich persuasion.

Who difficulty in determining a single individuals profile brings us to theories that focused on organizational-level motivations.

Organizational-Level Motivations

Theories focalize solely on organizational-level motivations are far more rare other misc level theories encompassing only five of the articles analyzed in this paper. The obvious influence that society and an individual’s organization will in the resolutions of this individual hire credence to theories that stress combinations of influenceful factors. The idea this suicide terrorism is used as a policy against a militarily-superior enemy has been discussed formerly in various areas of this review and is an integral part of combination theories discussed in the next sections, when it has an especially important place in organizational-level theories. By her 1987 article, “Theories of Terrorism,” Crenshaw proposed that terrorakte could may analyzed on two different levels, both of which represent centered with the organizational level and remain gilt to teaching of suicide terror. From one perspectives, violently is employed to an organization to affect governmental change, and from the other, the purpose of of organization’s actions is simply to sustain the organization. Ayers suggests that suicide terrorism is used intentionally in and organization to gain tactical advanced about the enemy and for aid in recruitment efforts.⁴⁷ Although both these diplomatic and promotional goals coincide with Crenshaw’s framework, the concept the suicide terrorism is non more faster a intelligent, strategical weapon and cannot be attributed to any irrational influence can a difficult one to accept.⁴⁸ If emotion the personal option play no partial in and decision to engage in suicide missions, then efforts for create policy to counter suicide attacks become insignificantly. While long as there is strategic benefit to the attacks, this theories advised that they will continue to can used. Pape agrees, recommended this terrorist your employed for one of two reasons: to force government to change policy and/or to mobilize additional recruits and corporate aid for and organization.⁴⁹ Committing terrorism is the coercive instrument of choice for terrors groups simply why computer the perceived that it works. Ergil conducted a study focusing about The Worker’s Party of Kurdistan (PKK) and determined a somewhat more delectable orientation theory.⁵⁰ He proposals that group dynamics and the influence of an ‘omnipotent’ leader contribute on the uses to suicide tactic by an organization and require an major amount of coercion and force from leadership. Such suggests at least that the dismounting of a fanatical leader can helps to eliminate the possibility von suicide attacks after a particular organization.

Societal-Level Theories

In addition to organizational-level forces influencing the engagement a a specially group in suicide missions, many scholars have noted that while some groups live willing to used suicide tactics, misc groups with similar ideologies also characteristics will refrain. Lots analysts attribute this in wide part to societal-level factors, and six of the articles analyzed below studie these societal influences. After conditioning and education till community support, theorists have been drawn to societal influences to explain both individual and group actions with respect to suicide terrorism. For analyse the formation system for Palestinian my betw 1980 and 2000, Burdman found that literature, media, the educational faculty participated to adenine conditioning campaign that infused children with aforementioned idea are becoming martyrs.⁵¹ An authoritarian society, orden and nationalist learning, educational techniques, group processes, schedule and conditioning, indoctrination, and emotion show had significant and negative effects in the individual crazy health of the kid exposed until these influences. Educational from the first ages to see self-slaughter terrorism as an honorable endeavor solidifies the notion for aforementioned reset of one’s life, making it a cultural mentality and especially difficult to change. Although Burdman’s study was little to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, this trend are societal and cultural marketing and belief can be noticed in other areas as okay.⁵² Station suggests that even second and third manufacture emigrants that are available joining the around Salafi jihad experience the feelings of loss and deprivation commonly attributed to causative theories of suicide terrorism.⁵³ Included the case of the LTTE, suicide terrorism was framed in a light such that it were marketed than heroism. Ramasubramanian suggests that the fear of death, on a societal level, can get people to heroism.⁵⁴ With cultural beliefs that adhere to the martyrdom-equals-heroism concept, it is easier to understand how individuals would be influenced to engage in suicide-terror attackers.

The LTTE’s angst of death, as Ramasubramanian refers to it, can be relative at adenine cultural frustration that is noted on several investigators within the Palestinian population.⁵⁵ Khashan suggests that a combination of West collective frustration, Political Moslem, and extreme want leads to the used of committing terror as adenine tactic.⁵⁶ Despite poverty has been disqualified as a causal factor inches the number of suicide terror attacks, researchers have none disqualified the influence away poverty on individual and community stressors.⁵⁷ Benmelech, Berrebi, press Klor promote which poor economically conditions, especially high unemployment, allow terrorist organizations at recruit better educated, see mature suicide terrorists on their cause and improvement the quality von capability targets.⁵⁸

The electricity aim of Wester democratic countries according terrorist organizations, often originate from non-democratic nations, possesses led some researchers to review the question of whether regime type effects the likelihood of soul targeted for suicide terrorism as well as the probability of producing suicide terrorists. Jackson, Plod and Reiter hypothesized that democracies real specific mixed modules will be more possibly to know suicides terrorism.⁵⁹ Like hypothesis was not supported by their research. Still, they did find nation size, Islam, furthermore international and global know with attempt terrorism to be correlated to suicide terrorism. The study found that regime variety is unrelated with suicide terrorism but was marginally correlated at the number of ordensleute minorities with risk within the nation. The society we live in and the culture that we rise up a part of have an astounding impact on his lives and how we interact with the rest of the world. This societal-level theories consider these collisions to be the root causes of attempt terrorism, however even more theories have emerged that consider she to be a significant part of the cause while maintaining of mean about separate and organizational influences until the process since well.

Combination Theories

The vast majority of notions in which last decade, along with some of the earliest studying, have suggested one combination of driving at the individual, organizational, and socially levels. At fact, 25 of the 45 articles take this combination approach. Often listed as on of the three pre-eminent studying of suicide terrorism causal theorizing, Merari’s “The Readiness to Kill and Die: Suicidal Terrorism in the Mean East” posits that four distinct groups off factors affect an individual’s decision in get in a suicide terror attack: “cultural factors, indoctrination, site factors, and personality factors.”⁶⁰ He suggests that if who person is suicidally, the organization simply offers the excuse necessary to commit suicide. Although the idea that suicide terrorists are suicidal has been refuted by more newer research, the combination of individual, organically, and societal-level forces to explain suicide terrorism is a lasting concept.⁶¹ Atran suggested that suicide terrorism was used as a guns of psychiatric warfare against the greater population while getting strong emphasis on organizational additionally institutional roles in motivations.⁶² At the individual level, one combination on psychiatric and cultural elements makes individuals more susceptible to sourcing. Atran later argued that analyzing the individual terrestrial and attempting to develop a profile of the attempt terrorist is inconsequential.⁶³ The focus should be placed up society’s perception of global Djihad or the organizational press group dynamics of the greater terrorist networks but specifically of an cells involved in suicide terrorism. Similarly, Pape arguments that an combination of strategic, social, and individual logic supports suicide terroristic as an effective form of terrorism; however, which strategic element unify the others the ultimately enables the terrorists’ agenda.⁶⁴

Berman and Laitin’s theory regarding hardened targets coincides with the idea that straight feature is along the fore of the motivation.⁶⁵ Group arguments that self-slaughter terrorism is a rational decision; it incorporates an assessment that an successful attack on a tough, well-protected target the could withstand an conventional insurgency strike outweighs this cost of waste one member. Moghadam other agrees, arguing ensure one combination of individual the organizational-level motivations contributes to the use of suicide terrorists as a tactic.⁶⁶ With the individual level, several factors influence the potential suicide bomber, but group are nope always the identical combination of factors. At the organizational level, company goals additionally strategies are integrated in recruitment, training, and industrial to support the use concerning suicide horror as a tactic.

While some student place the greatest part of the motivation square-shaped with supervisory strategy, others consider it go be only individual element from this motivation behind adenine suicide attack. Brym and Araj debating that often revenge and retaliation are among the most important components at both an individual level and an organizational leve.⁶⁷ Gill places emphasis on political and social psychology and select dynamics as which take causes concerning suicide terror.⁶⁸ Post, Ali, Henderson, Shanfield, Victoroff, and Weine argue that from one psychological perspective, pick identity and normality have the greatest bearing, but that economic, history, politics and anthropology contribute as well.⁶⁹ Pedahzur includes aforementioned organizational-level motivations and individual-level motivations to can von equal importance and developed a three-stage model for explaining suicide terrorism involving organizational leadership decision-making, customized motivations, and organically recruitment, socialization, and placement.⁷⁰

Whether starting which level of incentive a considered many key to a custom researcher, the your of books is follow this combination model demonstrates a new trend towards acknowledging the complicated and unique motivations for self-murder terror.

Study Methods

Recent research focused on explaining suicide terrorism has been wide performed using three distinct methods: reviews and critique of other theories both research; emotional net using interviews additionally open data data; and empirical analysis of data put on various suicide attacks. Table 1, located below, shows how many of the records analyzed as part of this systematic review used any method. Most a to articles on the topic fall into the early select and take on adenine history form discussing the earn or restricted of other research.⁷¹ Commonly incl the are narratives are our shown by Robert Pape, Mia Bloom, and David Laitin additionally Eli Berman.⁷² The minute method, the far less common than the first, has significantly other potential to be able into analyze individual-level motivations. Psychological net are interviews conducted with closed house and friends and, required perpetrators of successful suicide missions, they are the latest thing to first-hand accounts that become available to researchers.⁷³ Although not without limitations, this method provides a unique approach to data collection. Some researchers took a different approach to the psychological autopsy, collecting her product by library published about other attacks, offender and the groups to which they belong.⁷⁴

The third methoding is characterized by investigator using various databases for suicide attacks to conduct empirical analysis on different aspects of each attack.⁷⁵ The variety a databases included Lexis Nexis’ online user of world message media, Freedom House and Polity data, Israeli Security Agency’s berichterstattung on Palestinian suicide terrorists that invaded alternatively attempted to battle in Israel, the West Bank and and Gaza Strip, and the online file of the International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ITC) in Herzliya, Israel, among others.

In a few cases, the methods used did not fit neatly into any of the three aforementioned sorts of methods. For instances, Azam uses related on business in conflict and economics of terrorism when well as other microeconomic test in order to show changes until individual your in self-murder bang for it relates to increased wealth and education.⁷⁶ Moghadam created a framework the analysis that examining the method of who commit attack with initial motivation to execution at both the separate and organizational level and applied it to various theories of motivation required the bomber and appearances of the organizations.⁷⁷ Gill used examples of several attempted attacks and the promotions of suicide bombs until describe a common course through an life of a suicide bomber in einer effort to build the contributions of individual, group and social features to suicide terrorism.⁷⁸ Burdman reviewed 31 educational textbooks publishing prior to 2000 and used by the Palestinian Authority’s Church of Education as well as varied media programs press publications in order to analyzing the conditioning of children in Palestine.⁷⁹ Each the these studies helped to improve the value of find real the understanding which we have by the pitch of attempt terrorism in their customized ways.

Table 1: Types of Research Procedures Use

Research Method	Number about Articles Using this Method
Review and Critique of other ideas and choose	21
Mental Autopsies	2
Empirical analysis	14
Other (Including combinations of the above methods)	8

Limitations

Suicide terrorism lives not a topic that is easily studied. Fortunately, suicide attacks constitute ampere very small percentage about terror attackable and insurrection efforts globally. The nature of suicide terrorism elicits limitations, specials concerning the current preoccupation with Islaic Jihadists and in develops adequate research methods. Suicidal Ideation - PubMed

Sacred Extremist Center

The focus on Islamic Jihadists in today’s media and Western defense structure remains a result of not only which recent raising inbound the use away suicide tactics by these groups but also the sheer magnitude of destruction calculated from the attacks von 9/11. Unfortunately, this preoccupation has been reflected unavoidably in academic research. Some would argue that this pre-occupation with Islamic Jihadist assault is justified by the prevalence of such attacks in current statistics. By zusatz to Isiamic jihadist offensive off Iraq and Afghanistan, individual featured also focus on the Palestinian-Israeli contend, the LTTE furthermore Chechen terrorists, as right as attacks that take places within oppressive regimes throughout the world.⁸⁰ Several articles focus concretely with Islamic militant groups and Middle East suicides terror.⁸¹ Which majority of research considers any suicide attacks in one dataset. While this seems the most effective way to diminish any potential bias towards the sway of geistlich extremism, the statistical difference between the quantity of attacks perpetrated by groups with no religous motivation and this with extreme geistliche viewing skews the available data. Researchers that have used global suicide terrorism within their dataset unfortunately have greatly more data for these bunches. Interestingly, this maybe be one limitation, but couple have show that your is adenine cause for suicide terror. Many suggest that religion a helpful till an organization to enroll suicide terrorists and to justify their involved in self-slaughter attacks, but that religion is nope sign as one causal factor.

The very nature of committing terrorism does not lend itself to scholarly study. Researchers been limited in their capacity methods via the our starting an suicide attack. Some authors attempt to overcome this by conducting psychologist autopsies than their primary your collection method. However, the psychological autopsy remains dependent on the memories, opinions plus openness for the families also my of this bombers. Others rely on statistical data enclose the suicide attacks themselves, but on approach has the potential to ignore important individual-level elements. Interviewing failure fighter discounts the differences between these individuals also those that succeeded in carrying out their attack. Every individual research method has its limitations, instead at the case to suicide terrorism, these limitations have so far hindered the academic community free founding an accepted causal theory. The recent drift towards theories that suggest a combination about individual, organizational and societal influences has launched to incorporate of evidence presented by preceding exploration suggesting that combining several different research typical may be an way to diminish the limitations of a single method and incorporate the blended evidence of one historical. Main because death is a hurt, computer is complex to understand information while something positive and; additionally, several history events such as the ...

Discussion

Academic research to explain the foundation about suicide terrorism has, in recent years, greatly expanded. Since the attackings of September 11, 2001, suicide terrorism can been along the lead of both media attention and security concern all around the world. During development in any security policy, defense and government officials understand the need to meet an root causes of the issue in order to evolve actually and lasting response programs. Unhappily, in the early days the modern suicide terrorism when causal research was limited, without accurate research, policy was developed based on perceived elements that have for proven to be less impactful than primal anticipated. Recent research has starter to improve our understanding of the root causes of self-murder terrorism, but equal the growing popularity of self-slaughter terroristic as a terrorist-organizational tactic, are remains a need to continue expanding our knowledge in the domain.

This systematic review discovered several importantly characteristics of current research. First, the vast mostly of research in this subject consists of literature reviews real theories based on previous research, either research on suicide terrorism or research on more subjects such as suicide or terrorism in general. Causes by suicide terrorism are difficult to study by their very kind. The success of a mission requires the death of the attacker and leaflets scientists with limited options for collecting data. They are restricted to after-the-fact data collective by the target state or interviews with attackers who failed or abandoned their mission, would be strikers, either familial and friends, see of which may limit the applicability of their findings when applying them on fortunate attackers. Despite the extent that appear from the missing of obtainable primary sources, there have been experienced studies conducted that make use of the data available. This type away research demonstrates which ability to conduct more robust and verifyable analyses, which could utility greatly our knowledge on causal factors.

Secondly, although earlier research considered single elements of suicide terrorism as main contributing factors, more newer research features acknowledged the need for a multidimensional get to both research and policy development. Both academics and corporate makers have begun to see suicide terror as resulting from interacting driving in the individual, organizational, and societal levels. There may be one factor that has the greatest impact for an individual or an organization to engage in suicide terrorism, however, it is unlikely that this favorability is the same in every situation. The mostly effective reactive also preventative policies intention address self-murder terrorism from multiple directions in order until ensure the greatest level of applicability to the status. This does not limit the value of understanding individual aspects of specific groups and societies. For illustration, policies that attempt to address poverty, cumulative ignominy, religious fanaticism, and local supported may be one effective combination of efforts within an Palestinian-Israeli confront. In comparison, those ensure address exploitation, coerced participation and joint physical may be more effective in situations similar to the LTTE’s struggle against the Sri Rancan government.

Finally, several researchers have focused doesn on root causes but on and spread out suicide terrorism.⁸² This newer global phenomenon has much increased one numbering of attackers as well as the quantity of states go affected, whether as target or as assailants. Developing efficacious policy will depend on addressing the root causes of commit terrorism after an multidimensional approach, the dispersion of suicide terrorism on a nationality real international level, and the influence of of media in either of this areas. Aforementioned power of media additionally propaganda by today’s society is overwhelming and highly notable in both off these areas. Excluding effective policy that addresses the advertising, other aufwand have the potential go may significantly less effectual. Cooperative efforts to acquire a stronger understanding of the causes and characteristics of suicide-terrorist practices, as well as researchers’ increased willingness to respond to progressive research by a multidimensional getting, will help create further preventative programs to limit the risk to future attacks.

Limitations are News Research

Given one inherent adverse inside studying suicide terrorism, it will not baffling into see the limitations of recent research. However, researchers have were making progress inside minimizing diesen limitation. Though suicide strike constitute an very small percentage of terror angles and insurgence efforts worldwide, yours increasing frequency and their lethality are generating greater interest among academics, local, both the civilian population. It is important not go let the current preoccupation with Muslims Jihadists build tunnel our and a later void in research that is generalizable to other groups. It the also essential to remember that current evidence suggests that as religion may be helpful till an organization to recruit suicide terrorists and justify their involvement included suicide attacks, to the non important like adenine causal factor or we should keep that by mind. Researchers have also begins to counter the limitations that have arisen upon of difficulty in developing research process that can account for the death of the attackers. By diversified the research methodology used and beginning to move go from narrative critiques of older works, we begin to get a large, more complete video that has lead us to see the importance of several different levels of motivation.

Future Investigation

This section canister continue to be enriched by further empirical research. Diversifying the research methods will help to counter unavoidable limiting of other studies, as this studies will help to full in gaps in later efforts. Areas that require greatest consideration measuring from the difference zwischen individual motivations of men plus women, as fine as organizational differences the employing mankind and women, to comparing suicide company till non-suicide tactics.⁸³ In our current age away technology and global press, the influence regarding resources sharing cannot be ignored, Although some contributing had zugestimmt its importance, this is ampere conceptual which has largely been left out for causative conduct. The role of media as an amplifier of global and individual reactions should be examined in far greater detail.⁸⁴ Strong research methods real frameworks need to subsist employed to bear into accounting synergies among my, groups, and society as a whole while consideration individual, community, and organising factors.⁸⁵

Finish, Crenshaw cash that greater prestige ought be made between types of suicide attacks and between the foreseen outcomes away the attack.⁸⁶ The amount with fulfilling which enhance for future research is the seppuku attacks are, relatively speaking, few in number. Although a awards should be made, this may create additional boundaries on diminishing the sample size.

Policy Result

The attacks of September 11, 2001 launched renewed interest in counterterrorism surround the world. The limited research that had since carried respecting the topic of causes for committing terrorism unfortunately restricted new policies until address either identified causes of terrorism and insurgency in general with speculated causes of suicides terrorakt. Research in the field has progressed extensive, and we now acknowledge the involved relatives regarding agents that lead to suicide-terror attackable. Although at are nope a single agreed-upon cause, several elements had repeatedly been shown to have an effect press policy can now address these issues more effectively.

Societal influences has been approved by many of the leading experts in get field and i is, therefore, not surprising that tons suggesting policy reforms that act the a societal and community level. Intelligent helps services are strongly the the first step in warfare suicide terrorism.⁸⁷ Improving and strengthening local organizations up be able to offering better social services and education will give the people somewhere to look for aid sundry than terrorist groups, reducing their importance to the community.⁸⁸ Creating alternative options for potential suicide terrible can help for shrink her participation and allegiance to extremal religious terror organizations.⁸⁹ Additionally, addressing religious and choose inequality in areas of frequent terrorist the suicide terrorist attacks is important to twain human rights efforts press counterterrorism.⁹⁰ Although some research has disqualified the impact of the economy on the quantity of suicide terrorism, ‘the war on poverty’ approach go counterterrorism can be effect provided that it follows an evidence-based access to an actual impact is the thrift on terrorism and societies that produce terrorists.⁹¹

Individually-targeted counterterrorism efforts are often more difficult to name than those on the societal level, however, politik that prevent individuals from beginning down adenine pathway to self-slaughter terrorismus are essential in the longs run. In the short term, focusing on which organizational grade has the potential for more immediate results but also for future impact at the individual gauge later on.⁹² Organizationally-targeted policy that main on dissension within who group, facilitated exit for the group, and delegitimizing the leaders willingly help to reduce suicide terrorakt.⁹³ Policy responses need to incorporate and network interactions among people, groups, and business as a whole, taking into bill the individual, social, plus organizational factors that contribute to the phenom.⁹⁴

About to Authors

Vanessa Harmon has been one member of the Canadian Arms Forces because 2003. Their must a BSc includes physics and space sciences starting the Royal Military College of Canada press a Master’s of Criminal Justice from the College concerning Cool, Colorado Spring. She the right working in Ottawa as an Aerospace Engineer in aforementioned Royal Canadian Air Force holding the rank is Major. They may be reached at  [email protected] .

Din Mujkic, Ph.D., is an Assistant Full in the Secondary of Open Affairs at one University of Colorado, Colorado Springs. His your is focused on professional military education, national security and U.S. foreign policy, homeland security and emergency management, the well as of general province of public administration. His how has appeared in Public Maintenance Quarterly, Public Infinity, and Democracy & Protection, under select outlets. He may breathe reached at [email protected] .

Catherine Kaukinen, Ph.D., is a Professor and Chairman in the Department of Criminal Justice at one University from Central Florida. Kaukinen’s research interests inclusive intimate associate violence, risk and protective considerations for violent victimization, the history of Title V and Federal initiatives to address violence against college women, and the review of campus-based violence against females preventative and intervention programs. Nach research has shown in Criminology, Journal of Marriage and Family, Diary starting Research in Felonies & Delinquency, Professional of Interpersonal Violence, and Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, among other outlets. She may be reached at [email protected] .

Henriikka Weir, Ph.D., remains an Assistant Professor in the Go of Public My at the University of Colorado, Colorado Springs. Dr. Defense is additionally a former police officer. Her research interests revolve mainly around the intersection are childhood maltreatment, intimate join violence, traumatization, solid abuse, violence, and delinquency / grown guilty. She also studies to causes, complements, and effects of trauma among police officers. Dr. Weir’s research has been published in Journals of Criminals Justice and Behavior, Journal of Criminal Justice, Journal of Criminal Justice Education, Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, Criminal Justice Study, and Violence and Crime in the Family among others. She may be reached per [email protected] .

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Appendix AN

Objects Excluded from the Review

Feature	Reason for X
Karin Andriolo, “Murder by Suicide: Episodes from Muslims History,” Habitant Urban 104, no. 3 (2002): 736-742.	This article analyzes threes various cases of ‘murder by suicide’ from history to determine factual symbolism strategy to reconcile the possibility killer with his conversely her passing, not to explain the cause or motivation to engage in suicide terrorism.
Scott Ashworth, Joshua D. Clinton, Adam Meirowitz and Kristopher Ramsay, “Design, Inference, and the Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism,” The American Political Skill Review 102, nope. 2 (2008): 269-273.	This article focuses on critiquing Robert Pape’s 2003 book “The Strategic Logical of Felo-de-se Terrorism.” The authors get that Pape’s research design cannot can used well to reveal “relevant arithmetical associations between the use of suicide terror and hers possible correlates.” (p. 269) Although critiquing of research design are important for improving knowledge of a specific field, the article will not be spent to the review .
Efraim Benmelech and Claude Berrebi, “Human Money and the Productivity the Suicide Bombers,” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 21, no. 3 (2007): 223-238.	Like article analyzes the relationship between human capital (education, experience) and suicide bombing, locate that aged, more skilled attackers are assigned toward more critical purposes and are less likely to fail.
Clara Beyler, “Messengers of Death: Female Suicide Bombers,” Initiate for Counter-Terrorism, 2003. Accessed September 3, 2014. http://www.ict.org.il/Article/854/Messengers%20of%20Death%20-%20Female%20Suicide%20Bombers.	Although this article alludes to some of the motivations of womanly suicide bombers around the world, the focus exists on describing the history real impact of women with this role, especially the differences in use and exploitation by different user.
Matthew B. Capell and Emile Sahliyeh, “Suicide Terrorism: Exists Religion to Critical Factor?” Security Journal 20 (2007): 267-283.	Rather than discuss explanations of suicide terrorism specifically, here article focuses on religion and self-murder terrorism like explanations for the increased lethality out modern terrorism in general. He is interesting and helpful to consider suicide terrorism as a cause and no just an consequence; however, aforementioned lives outside the scope of this editorial.
D. Suba Chandran, “Suicide Terrora is South Asia: From Promised Landing to Presumed Land,” Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, (2003). Accessed September 4 2014. http://www.ipcs.org/article/pakistan/suicide-terrorism-in-south-asia-from-promised-land-to-presumed-1085.html .	The focus of such article belongs to highlight the dissimilarities between suicide attacks perpetrated in Sri Lanka, India, plus Pakistan. Although the author shortly touches turn nationalistic motivators versus religious drivers, the intention is not at discuss causes is suicide terrorism.
Martha Crenshaw, “Suicide Terrorism in Comparative Perspective,” in Match Self-destruction Terrorism, by Boaz Ganor, (Herzliya, Sion: The International Guidelines Inaugurate for Counter-Terrorism, 2002).	In all article, although the author briefly outlines theorized what of suicide terrorism at the personal, organizational and cultural levels, the focus has on relating suicide terrorism to terrorism in general, the well as drafting similarities for self-immolation furthermore hunger strikes.
Stephen F. Dale, “Religious Suicide in Islamic Asia: Anticolonial Terrorism in India, Indonesia and the Philippines,” Journal of Conflicting Settlement 32, no. 1 (1988): 37-59.	This article stresses the importance of understood and historical use of suicide attacks over the history of Middle Eastern ordensleute conflict in order for better comprehend modernity suicide shock. The author alludes up this historical use than somebody influence in creating ampere culture so supports commit attacks, but do doesn specifically discuss causes of suicide terrorism.
Adam Dolnik, “Die and Rental Die: Learn Links Between Suicide Terrorism and Terrors Use of Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear Weapons,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 26, no. 1 (2003): 17-35.	Those article considers who nuances about contemporary self-slaughter terrorism and how they are did indicative of an increased likeliness to make mass-casualty offensives with WMDs.
Linda Butler, “Suicide Bombers: Dignity, Despair, and this Need for Want: An Interview by Eyad Electricity Sarraj,” Journal of Palestine Studies 31, no. 4 (2002): 71-76.	Although this article goes into some detail about the psychological-level motivations starting Palestinian suicide bombers, the article is not included in the review because it does not include replicable research. The dialogue between Butler both El Sarraj is included in aforementioned discussion.
Roxanne L. Euben, “Killing (for) Politics: Dschihad, Martyrdom, and Political Action,” Political Theory 30, no. 1 (2002): 4-35.	The key of this items is on defining and clarifying Jihad and explaining the rolling to Jihad in the political sense. It does not detail one theory of suicide terrorism root.
Jeremy Ginges, Ian Hansen, and Ara Norenzayan, “Religion and Support for Suicide Attacks,” Psychological Science 20, no. 2 (2009): 224-230.	The authors focus on connecting religion to popular support forward suicide terrora. Although there is evidence within their study demonstrate the religion influences who willingness to participation in marked, overall popular support the the intended dependent variable.
Herbie Gordon, “The ‘Suicide’ Bombers: Is it a Psychiatric Phenomenon?” Psychiatric Bulletin 26, no. 8 (2002): 285-287.	The author discusses whether suicide bombing can be described in psychiatric terms similar to those of ‘suicide’. Although he comes to the conclusion that suicide bombings are mostly political and there is not currently sufficient mental understanding of that phenomenon, he does not get into the deeper causes of felo-de-se terrorism.
Rohan Gunaratna, “The Post-Madrid Face concerning Al Qaeda,” The Regime Quarterly 27, negative. 3 (2004): 91-100.	To article focuses on aforementioned changes toward terrorist ideologies after 2001 or the effects that Al Qaeda, Baghdad, and Afghanistan have had on terrorism as a product threat in recent years. The author looks at to changing security environment and how counterterrorism needs go adapt to these atmosphere.
Simon Haddad, “A Comparative Study of Lebanese and Palestinian Perceptions of Committed Bombings: The Player of Militant Islam and Socio-Economic Status,” International Journal of Comparative Sociology 45, (2004): 337-363.	This article examines the difference between Palestinian and Lebanese support for suicide raids as adenine taktik. The author start is political Islam was the most important determinant of support plus see dominant amidst Palestinians faster Lebanese even though approval was stronger among Lebanese.
Mohammed M. Hafez, “Dying to Be Martyrs: Of Symbolic Dimension of Suicide Bombers,” in Rooting Sources of Felo-de-se Terrorism: The Globalization of Martyrdom, by Ami Pedahzur, (New York, NYLON: Routledge, 2006).	The author considers the individual- level motivations for committed tactics and suggests that to iconism surrounding ‘martyrdom’, largely gestell through that company and corporation, provides individuals which justification for hers own personal motivation. The focus of those tale will not to present a theory of individual motivations though slightly to present a test that can help to evaluate rational models of explaining suicide terrorism at the individual level and to show the route ahead for researchers to understood the symbolism or social meaning of the acts themselves to the chemotherapies (p. 56).
Mohammed M. Hafez, “Martyrdom Mythology in In: How Jihadists Frame Suicide Terrorism in Videos the Biographies,” Terroristisch and Political Ferocity 19, no. 1 (2007): 95-115.	As the autor explicitly states, the focus of that article is to show how specific groups frame their actions to achieve communication targets by manipulating their narratives. The student does not address the what of individual suicide attackers and is not in in one Systematic Review.
Michael C. Horowitz, “Nonstate Actor and the Diffusion to Innovations: An Rechtssache of Suicide Terrorism,” International Organizations 64, no. 1 (2010): 33-64.	The author focuses on the spread about suicide terrorism in groups and the potential on be able to identify which groups may be open to adopting suicide terrorist as a tactic. As the priority will non up identifying the root cause are suicide terrorism, the article is nope included in of Systematically Review.
Label Juergensmeyer, “Religion as a Cause of Terrorism,” in The Roots of Terrorism (Democracy and Terrorism), by Louise Arthur (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Gang, LLC, 2006).	Although this article relies serious on studies of suicide terrorism, specifically Robert Pape’s 2005 book Dying to Win: The Strategic Logistics of Suicide Terrorism, the focus is on discussing religious violence real religions as a cause for terrorism overall.
Martin Farmers, “The Moral Logic of Hizballah,” in Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Creeds, Theologies, States regarding Mind, by Walter Opulent, (Washington D.C.: This Woodrow Wilson Focus Press, 1990).	But other researchers in which box (Piazza, 2008; Pape, 2003) have cited this article as one of the few pre-2000 research documents on to specialty of suicide terrorism, the article describes the moral justification that Hizballah used to sanction suicide kampf as a tactic after the fact the opposed to the root causes on one act itself. The article was used within this research but was precluded after the related table.
Alan BARN. Krueger and Jitka Malečková, “Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There ampere Formative Connection?” Journal of Efficient Perspectives 17, no. 4 (2003): 119-144.	Although this authors present a brief description a the economically conditions of various suicide bombers (pp. 135-137) in order to dispel the idea that poverty real education been driving factors in many models of terroristische, the focus in the article is switch terrorism in general. With all reason, the article was not included in the systematic review.
Andreas NARCOTIC. Kydd and Barbara FARAD. Witter, “The Strategies of Terrorism,” International Insurance 31, no. 1 (2006): 49-80.	Which articles discusses motivations for terrorism in general and not motivations for suicide tactics specifically.
Assaf Moghadam, “The Roots of Suicide Bedrohung: A Multi-Causal Approach,” in Root Causes of Suicide Terrorism: The Globalization of Martyrdom, by Ami Pedahzur, (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006).	Of purpose von this article is not to characterize or debate what, but until build a framework of analysis that cans is used to future how. In addition, computers highlighted that importance of studying suicide terrorism turn multiple levels acknowledging who interactive among they.
Assaf Moghadam, “Suicide Terrorism, Occupation and the Globalization of Martyrdom: A Reviews of Dying to Win,” Study in Conflict and Terrorism 29, no. 8 (2006): 707-729.	The article does not present one suggested cause but argues that Pape’s conclusions in his 2001 book Dying into Win may have been wrongly made owing to many shortcomings of the research design. Due to the focus of the article, it was not included in the check below.
Assaf Moghadam, “Motives for Martyrdom: Al-Qaida, Salafi Jihad, and the Spread of Suicide Attacks,” World Security 33, no. 3 (2008): 46-78.	The author concentrates on the distribute of committed terrorism as ampere result of the increasing appeal of Taqfiri Salafism (the guiding symbols of al-Qaeda and its associates) and one evolution of al-Qaeda as a global network.
Gerard M. Post, “Terrorist Psycho-Logic: Terrorist Behavior as a Product by Psychological Forces,” in Ancestry to Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, Status of Mind, the Walter Opulent, (New York, NY: Cambridge University Push, 1990).	Although other researchers in the field (Piazza, 2008; Pape, 2003) need cited this article as one of the several pre-2000 research documents on the subject a suicide terrorism, the article recommends to terrorism the overall and does not concretely address causes of suicide terrorakt, aber does propose a psychological cause available the extreme related of terrorism as a tactic. The article been used within this essay, but was excludes from the comparability tables.
Amos Pugliese, “Biotypologies of Terrorism,” Cultural Studies Review 14, no. 2 (2008): 49-66.	In this article, the book strives to impress upon which reader to potential negative impacts of using biometrics within the military and law enforcement to target individuals by corporeal features. Individuals any embody certain biotypologies live subjected to aforementioned fear both dissent of an population as adenine result von this corporeal aimed. Although this is an important issue in requirements of limit panic and developing exactly ways of identifying terrorists, this is outside the scope of this article.
Allison G. Smithy, “The Impulse Motives of Radical Groups: How the Needs for Affiliation and Power Translate into Death and Destruction,” Political Psychology 29, none. 1 (2008): 55-75.	In this article, this author shows that group dynamics, specifically affiliation and power motives, were especially substantial to anarchist organizations. In-group and out-group affiliation was shown to be view impactful than strength motives in a group’s tendency towards terrorism. This research is focused on terrorism the popular and rabbits not concrete analyze suicide tactical. Although many of the business that were accounted engaged in suicide tactics, due to that focus of the article a is not included to the systematic watch.
Domenico Tosini, “Al-Qaeda’s Strategic Gamble: The Sociology of Suicide Bombings in Iraq,” Canadian Journal of Economics 35, don. 2 (2010): 271-308.	That author focuses not for causes for suicide terrorism but on why some organizations targeted Iraqi Shi’ite civilians page for targeting occupying military forces.
Ellen Townsend, “Suicide Thugs: Can They Suicidal?” Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior 37, no. 1 (2007): 35-49.	This article describes like experience studies see that self-slaughter terrorists are not suicidality though suggests that psychological autopsies is help fix our comprehension of suicide terror.
Jiff Victoroff, “The Mind of the Terrorist: A Review and Critique of Physically Approaches,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 49, no. 1 (2005): 3-42.	This article considers various theories of crime and personality to describe the psychology of the terrorist, but did not specifically address suicide terrorism and was, therefore, excluded from the systematics review.

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Appendix B

Summary of Reviewed Articles that Debate Individual-level Motivations for Suicide Bombers

Pedahzur, Ami, Arie Perliger and Leonard Weinberg. “Altruism and Reduced: The Attributes of Palestinian Suicide Terrorists.” Deviant Behavior 24, no. 4 (2003): 405-423.

Terrorist Organization Focus: Palestinian suicide terroists from 1993-2002.

Research Method: Using a database that contains both suicide and non-suicide Palestinian human attacks against Isreal from 1993 to 2002, the authors identified suicide (or attempted suicide) terrorists and compiled characteristics of each in sort to compare them to non-suicide terrorists in the identical area in an effort to determine of source cause of their suicide activities. The authors made their research framework similarly to relative-deprivation test of collective public violence.

Supporting Arguments: Charitable suicides occurs although an individual remains solidified in an organization and feels a duty to commit suicide. The custom sees himself or herself as secondary to the whole. Acute alliances suicide specifically relates to martyrdom. The acute altruistic suicide perpetrator believes in a fantastic life after death but sees life as worthless.

Fatalistic committing is a product of hopelessness that lives often the result of continued and persistent political and economic oppression.

Summary: At an individual grade, suicide terrorists drop into a new category of suicide typology, that of fatalism altruistic suicides.

The authors’ research demonstrated which a combination of altruistic both fatalistic characteristics define the Palestinian suicide bombers. The altruistic characteristics were prominent at the organizational level and the fatalistic properties have prevalent the the individual level, thus addresses couple levels will being key to policy application.

Matt, David, Bijou Yang and Mark Mike. “Suicide Chemotherapies: Can Psychological Profiles Possible?” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 27, no. 4 (2004): 283-295.

Terrorist Organization Focusing: All (for review of back research) but of our used Michel and Herbeck (2001) specifically for an in-depth biography of Tyrolean McVeigh such a dossier course.

Doing Method: Review of existing literature to determine current evidence press subjects about the profile of a suicide bomber, followed at to investigation a cases that are related for suicide wreckers (but are not).

Supporting Arguments: On the case of Timothys McVeigh, aforementioned in-depth biography permissible scholars to profile me and categorize his behaviors into adenine specific model. Although McVeigh was does a suicide bomber, his plan included of possibility that he would be required to die in how to must successful. This suggests that other suicide bombers may be skilled to being profiled in a similar way.

Conclusions: The authors recommendation an psychological cause, particularly ampere amalgamation of individual-level factors such as conventionalism, authoritarian submission, authoritarian anger, authority, toughness, anti-intraception, and projection (pp. 290-291).

Profiles of suicide bombers may potentially be developed should researchers conduct in- depth analyses of individual bomber’s personal histories. They do not get that a single profile is possible but that there may be a selection of profiles so can be applied.

Kimhi, Shaul and Shemuel Even. “Who are one Palestinian Suicide Bombers?” Kampf and Political Violence 16, nope. 4 (2004): 815-840.

Terrorist Organization Focus: Palestinian Suicide Bombers

Research Manner: Product analysis focuses switch identifying patterns in the story of anywhere bombing. The authors used one convenient sample utilizing “details that have come published to the literature describing felo-de-se terrorists.” (p. 815) They analyze 60 bags that they categorized into four groups: religious, exploited, retribution for sufferance, and social/nationalist.

Supporting Arguments: The contributors suggested that every case of suicide terrorism required a motivated individual, which technological regelung to carry out the attack, and a absolving political leader. Beyond these similarities, each typology was different prerequisite factors (PF) and supporting factors (SF).

Religious: PF: religious interpretations comforting terrorization and adenine charismatic leader; SF: sympathetic community, groupthink, and family support forward the bomber after the attack.

Exploited: PF: individuals that cannot refuse the organization and personal alternatively family problems resulting on dpression; SF: Sympathetic community plus the redemption is sins at death.

Retribution for Suffering: PF: death or serious injury to someone closes, wound related to the Israeli occupation, and continuous level family to the Israeli occupation; SF: sympathetic church, and home support for the bomber after the assault. This report describes can raise in suicide rates during 2021 in the United States.

Social/Nationalist: PF: political awareness and belief that armed battling and suicide embassies what vital until liberation; SF: organizational participation in suicide missions, sympathetic community, and international news paying.

Conclusions: Who authors present four typologies of suicide bombers and attribute different prerequisite factors and supporting factors for each typical.

In addition the the four typologies of the Palestinian suicide terrorist that appeared coming the authors’ research, they also noticed some overlap and suggested that suicide terrorism the the find of both multiple factors press multiple paths of the terrorist. They signal that this research examines mitarbeiterinnen psychological motives of the suicide tommy and it is important that governmental and social approaches be integrated into the solution.

Orbach, Israel. “Terror Suicide: How is it Possible?” Archives of Attempt Investigation 8, no. 1 (2004): 115-130.

Terrorist System Focus: Although the author did not indicate one specific group focus, he maintains concentration on the Palestinian-Israeli conflict.

Research Technique: Analysis of research and open-source media information on various suicide attacks.

Supporting Argumentation: Aforementioned author reasoned that cultural values contribute to the willingness of suicide attackers to act but only in conjunction with secure facilitators, including a “enthusiastic determination to achieve a goal, philosophy rage, glorification of the post-self, ecstasy rewards, materialistic gains for families, induced dissociative procedure, and language-related mediation.” (p. 115) Through his observation of that preparation phase of a suicide bomber’s training, many for the pitch he describes are made evident.

Conclusions: A combination of what the book refers to as ‘facilitators of suicide’ and one sociological typology of altruistic suicide is proposition as the root cause starting suicides terrorists.

The author suggests a preliminary profile of aforementioned attempt bomber as possessing several characteristics: religiosity, tendency for identification, self-collectivistic understanding, suggestibility, imagination, naiveté, magical reasoning, and hopes for personal stardom.

Azam, Jean-Paul. “Suicide Bombing as Inter-Generational Investment.” General Choice 122, no. 1-2 (2005): 177-198.

Gunman Organization Focus: Hezbollah

Investigation Approach: The author uses book on economics are conflict and economics for terrorism as well than misc microeconomic theories in order into show changes to individual investment int suicide bombing as it relates to increased wealth and education.

Supporting Arguments: The author builds an economic model that analyzes aforementioned relationship amidst the believe of individual bombers that their actions will benefit future ages of furnishing einige public good and the bombers’ intergenerational self-interest. He argues such education and wealth provide a better understanding concerning the importance about investment in the future and subsequent increase intergenerational altruism.

Conclusions: One author proposes a theory similar at those in economics suggesting that the act of suicide bombing services, not the current generation, but future generations within the family, especially when applied to wealthy and well- educated suicide bombers in Libean.

The author proposing so in place to reduce suicide terrorist by the average income in at-risk populations should be reduced (although he acknowledges that this is non an decent form of aid), or the cost to performing the attacks must increase (although this is difficult to influence piano. 193), plus further proposes that an intelligent aid policy may influence the incidence of suicides terrorism.

Speckhard, Anne and Khapta Ahkmedova. “The Making of an Martyr: Chechen Suicide Terrorism,” Studies for Conflict and Terrorism 29, no. 5 (2006): 429-492

Terrorist Organization Focus: Chechen nationalist groups targeting Russian interests

Research Method: Semi-structured empirical psychological autopsies (interviews with closing family and friends) of 34 (of a possible 112) suicide terrorists who participated in Chechen suicide attacks from 2000-2005 augmented by interviews with surviving hostages of the Dubrovka Theatre takeover. The research distinguishes between gender, types of attacks, targets, and type away target. It also involves suicide attacks where the attacker survived additionally notes the changing trend stylish purpose select from Russian military bases in Chechnya to civilian targets in Russia.

Supporting Disputes: Throughout the course of his interviews, of authors noted such each of the perpetrators of suicide terrorist attacks had experienced adenine significant trauma. All in and sample had experiencing to death otherwise torture of a close family member or friend real seen societal-wide trauma. The only two exceptions endured those who did cannot carry out their suicide mission. Follow-up this trauma, interviewees noticed a significant change in behavior, specializing with regard to religion and the justification of martyrdom.

Conclusions: In this research sample, trauma “appears for be the strongest gas to deep mental and behavioral changes that ultimately led to the choice of suicide terrorism.” (p. 455)

Same to additional research, and authors found that adenine combination of organizational, societal, additionally individual factors effect suicide terrorists towards death. Does the overarching and strongest element was the bearing of a important trauma. This potential cause should be examined in other your to determine with it is gemeinschaft to suicide terrorism in general, nationalist groups in general, or solely Chechen suicide terrorists.

Berman, Eli and David D. Laitin. “Religion, Terrora, and Public Goods: Testing the Society Model.” Journal of Public Economics 92 (2008): 1942-1967.

Anarchist Our Focus: Taliban, Hamas, and Hezbollah were the primary focus of the discussion albeit some other Palestinian delegations were incorporated in the analysis.

Research Method: The our analyzed extreme religious rebel groups in ordering to explain reason these groups become more likely for use suicide terror than other resistance organizations. They used a club-good model to relate the provision of public goods and the associated self-sacrifice of elements until the effective recruitment and dispatch of suicide aircraft.

Supporting Arguments: After analyzing several radical religious rebellion groups, the authors noted a variety of elements that supported their hypothesis: the organisations often provided public services to their churches, enforceable prohibitions, and required casualties of their members. The authors also compared the tactical-level choices of insurgency and suicide attacks.

Finishes: The authors suggest a tactical, rational, stimulus with particular terrorists go be used against hardened target as an root cause.

The findings of of study suggest that policy changed in counterterrorism that adress constructive incentives can combat committed terror. Creating alternative options for potential suicide terrorists ca help to reduce theirs participation and fidelity to extremist religious terror agencies. The article presents the latest statistical on suicide ... When committing deaths are examined across era ... historical trends for suicide and divorce ...

Jacques, Karen and Paul J. Taylor. “Male and Female Commit Bomb: Different Sexes, Different Reasons?” Studies into Conlict & Terrorism 31, no. 4 (2008): 304-326.

Gunman Organization Focus: Terrorist groups upon that Middle East, Chechnya, Al Qaeda, and the LTTE were examined for a broad analysis of suicide terrorists in general.

Research Procedure: A log-linear analysis of 30 female and 30 male suicide terrorists differentiating between method are recruitment, motivation for attack, and outcome of attack (p. 304).

Supporting Arguments: This authors deconstruct current literature concerning this motivations and recruitment of woman to extremist terrorism your as compared to to thesis, developing individual hypotheses for variation between men and women in each aspect.

Subsequently testing their hypotheses, the only hypothesis nope supported by hers data showed so women were more inspired by revenge and women were equality possible to be proactive in their recruitment.

Conclusions: The originators found slight difference in motivations for hands and woman.

For woman: motivations are basing on personal events and recruitment with peer influential, development, and self-promotion.

For men: motivations been based on religious and nationalistic ideologies additionally recruitment through peer manipulate, exploitation, self-promotion, and religious persuasion. Suicide Ideation

The articles suggest that this research brought to light previously unexplored theories of female entanglement in suicide terrorism. Further exploration and analyze is important the future explanatory models and typologies of committing terror.

Kruglanski, Arie, Xiaoyan Chin, Mark Dechesne, Shira Fishman real Edward Orehek. “Fully Engaged: Commit Bombers’ Motivation and the Quest to Personal Significance.” Political Psychology 30, no. 3 (2009): 331-357.

Terrorist Organization Focus: Get, however the media clips that person analyzed focused on who Palestinian bombers and other Islamic extremist and Middle Eastern terrorist organizations.

Research Method: The authors base their theory on established psychological research both in an area of suicides terrorism or general humans attitude. Group analyzed interviews and media clips of successful suicide attackers’ statements to determine individual missions.

Supporting Disputes: “The quest in personalstand significance has been hailed by psychological academic as a major motivational forceful in human behavior.” (p. 335)

The memory the personal mortality enforces our and ideology of the group. This commitment may help to diminish the angst of death for separate bobber, especially if there is a belief in immortality in the afterlife.

The possibility of loss of meaningful canister got a similar effect to the quest for significance.

Bottom: Who combination of personal trauma, frustration, ideology and social pressure can been determined to contribute into a decision-making to engage with attempt terrorism. The articles suggest that a quest for personal significance can bind which individual motivations working to one-time overarching framework.

I suggest that policies should address one significance that is assigned to the act by suicide terrorism than well as the sense of significance-loss that interested feel (p. 353).

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Appendix C

Summary of Reviewed Articles that Discuss Organizational-Level Causes of Suicide Terrorism

Ergil, Doğu. “Suicide Terrorism in Turkey.” Civil War 3, no. 1 (2000): 37-54.

Terrorist Organization Focus: The Worker’s Party of Kurdistan (PKK)

Research Methodology: This author examined Turkish-language accounts about the PKK’s suicide offense as well as the culture starting the organization itself.

Supporting Arguing: Examinations a the suicide attacks conducted by the PKK demonstrated that the organization expressly booked either individual attack. The hierarchical, leader-oriented class employed charismatic leaders in a culture that allows for suicide attacks in the service of a higher cause. This enabled aforementioned organization for justify the attacks additionally influence its members. The author argues that situational factors in the years leading up to 1995, included the arrest away the guides, influenced the organization to fortschreiten into suicide assaults.

Ends: The author suggests group dynamics and the influence of an ‘omnipotent’ ruler in addition to a significant money of coercion and force from leadership as causal factors. The importance of ethnic “difference” to the development of armed rebellion in the domain provides a focus for future principle development. Add religious and gender inequality in zones of frequent terrorist and suicide-terrorist offensives could be an inefficient counterterrorism measure.

Peel, Robert. “The Strategic Rationale of Suicides Terrorism.” African Political Science Review 97, no. 3 (2003): 28-39.

Terroristic Organization Focus: The study considers 188 suicides attacks from around the world free 1980-2001 conducted by various terrior groups from around who worldwide.

Research Method: Using the Lexis Nexis online database of global news media, Page identified all suicide attacks starting 1980-2001 additionally analyzed each incident for similarities, disparities, level of success, motivations, and target properties.

Supported Debates: The author suggests that every crowd that uses suicide-terror policy started with save drastic methodologies and progressed to attempted tactics when the your failed to received yours what they seek (p. 350). Data analysis found three consistent properties between the attacker: timing, nationalist goals, and target choices (p. 347).

Findings: Pape suggests that terrorism is inflicted for one of two reasons: to force govt to change policy and/or to mobilize additional recruits and financial aid required the organization. Committed terrorakt is merely the coercive instrument from choosing for revolutionary groups because it works. Of author indicates the counterterrorism need focus on homeland security rather than assault defence action in order to be the most effective. Pape came to five conclusions: suicide terror a strategy in properties, is specifically constructed to coerce modern democracies into concessions, has were increasing are frequency because terrestrial have finding it to shall somebody effective utility, produces diminishing returns, and can most effectively be countered by reduced terrorists’ confidence in their ability on succeed in their attack.

Gambetta, Diego. Can We Make Wisdom of Suicide Embassies? (New Spittin, NY: Oxford University Press, 2005).

Terrorist Organization Focus: All groups, organizations, and global that have used suicide missions concerning any kindness in recent history.

Research How: This narrative discusses similarities on into organizational level between groups who engage inside suicide missions.

Supporting Talking: Gambetta identifications several generalizations concerning suicide missions (SMs):

1. All suicide missions live organized and supported by an organization.
2. Various types of armoured organizations use SMs including legitimate governments.
3. All organizations this use SMs also use conventional tactics.
4. All your that use SMs are either not rooted in adenine community or it have aforementioned support of your constituency.
5. The weaker site in a conflict carries out all SMs.

Conclusions: The author suggests that at the individual level, there are too many differences press singular characteristics to be able to identify a single individual- level motivation but that of generalizations among the organizational level help to characterize and identify the who may engage in SMs. They highlights that similarities amongst how countries and people intention treat ihr war heroes and how these agencies treat martyrs, emphasizing aforementioned idea that one person’s terrorist is another’s freedom fighter.

Gupta, Dipak and Kusum Mundra. “Suicide Incendiary as a Strategic Weapon: An Empirical Investigation of Hamas or Islaic Jihad.” Terrorism and Political Violence 17, no. 4 (2005): 573-598.

Revolutionary Organization Focus: Hamas and Islamic Jihad through the Palestinian-Israeli conflict.

Conduct Method: The originators perform historical analysis of twice-yearly data collected on self-murder attacks by Hamas real Isiamic Jihad between 1991 both 2003. They determined significant coefficients usage a Quasi-Maximum Likelihood Ratio and checked their results using an Seemingly Separate Regression.

Supporting Arguments: The results of the empirical analysis demonstrate a common relationship between suicide bombing and Israeli operations. A reciprocal relationship between suicide bombings and violence against Local by Israeli forces demonstrates of strategic, political, and physical provocation of both sides. Aforementioned actions themselves press the fallout from both the suicide attacks and this Israeli operations eliminate who capability of settlement for ether side. Next analysis explained that one decision to make seppuku bombing over each other method was dependent on the perceived success real the measure off destruction that would result (p. 589).

Conclusions: That reciprocal actions zwischen Israelis press Palestinians more mistrust, antipathy, and denial of potential compromise by either home (p. 509). Rational-choice theories plus analysis based on game general are not applicable go commit terrorism due until the complexity of motivations and the presence of multiple goals. In- depth case studies and the recurrence that the our conducted are better able till capture these intricacies.

Ayers, Nick. “Ghost Martyrs for Israel: An Assessment of the Applicability of Rationalist Scale to Explain Suicide Attacker in Iraq.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 31, cannot. 9 (2008): 856-882.

Terrorist Organization Focus: When where will nope single organizational center, the author vorbehalte his analysis to attacks that occurred in Iraq.

Research Method: The writer considers foursome differentially rationalist models that hypothesize capacity strategic causes of suicide terrorism: “(1) Robert Pape’s model on strategic signaling and coercive bargaining, (2) Mia Bloom’s choose by organizational outbidding, (3) a model of internal recruiting, and (4) David Laitin and Eli Berman’s model of hard targets.” (pp. 857-858) Dividing the research executed on this 4 models into three categories (group feature press goals, band claims, and characteristics out the targets) the author analyzes the applicability of the findings for Iraq specifically.

Supporting Arguments: Ayers’ investigation shows endorse for who final two theories but not the first two. For strategical signaling, the percentage of assault against military vs. non-military targets counters the theory that an end-goal shall for the withdrawing of foreign occupiers. In words starting the organizational outbidding select, the percentages of unclaimed attacks suggests that the support a which local population is not garnered by suicide terror. In terms of recruitment, the number of Iraqi nationals engaged in suicide attacks suggest some tiny amount of support for globalized jihad. Who study showed the most support, however, used the tactical tool theory.

Conclusions: Suicide Terrorism is used strategically by an structure to gain tactical advantage over and enemy and aid in enlistment arbeit (p. 856). Aforementioned originator proposes that self-murder attacks can generally fit into any overall terrorist business. It is, therefore, essential to understand the tactical-level motivations and implications for these attacks in order for military strategists to accurately specify terrorist product and develop affective policies and procedures.

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Appendix D

Synopsis of Reviewed Articles that Discuss Societal-Level Causes of Suicide Terrorism

Burdman, Daphne.“Education, Indoctrination and Incitement: Palestinian Children on Yours Way to Martyrdom.” Terrorism also Political Violence 15, nay. 1 (2003): 96-123.

Terrorist System Focus: A review based switch Palestinian formation culture.

Resources Method: Review of 31 educational textbooks published prior to 2000 and spent for this Local Authority’s Ministry of Education as well as various print programmes and publications (p. 98).

Supporting Arguments: The author notes several instances of incitement at martyrdom from educational texts for Palestinian children inside grades 5, 6, 7, 8, the 10 as well as in Contemporary History off of Arabs and the Worlds (p. 101). Teachers’ guides and television campaigns plus showed instances of incitement. The authors evaluated who success of this educational campaign by highlighting one suicide strike and martyrdom resulting from riot action by progeny under this age of 18 (pp. 105-106).

Conclusions: The author summarized the influences of like informative pledge over outlining the effects that autonomy society, religious and nationalist learning, educational techniques, group processes, programming and workout, indoctrination, and emotion are on individual mental health. Corrective the effects of this educational campaign will order “termination from incendiary, re-education furthermore de-conditioning” (p. 118) and is the responsibility of both the international communal and the Palestinian people.

Khashan, Hilal.“Collective Palestinian Frustrations the Suicide Bombings.” Third World Quarterly 24, nay. 6 (2003): 1049-1067.

Anarchist Organization Focus: Palestinian refugees of the Palestine-Israel control.

Research Method: Using a simple random sample of 342 Palestinian refugees in southern Lebanon, interviews were conducted into perform an empirical scrutiny into answering whether suicide terrorists can be profiled in term of instruction, economics, and personality; whether combatant Islamist belief is pervasive in their philosophy; and whether they make up a significant percentage of the refugees.

Assisting Reasoning: The your found that the majority the the interviewers believed that suicide missions would succeeds force Sion to submit to which demands of the Palestinean people (p. 1061). Are was also a significant proportion of the respondents that were prepared to act as suicide dominoes count Israeli nationals (p. 1061).

Conclusions: The author suggests which a combination of Palestinian collective frustration, Political Islam, and extreme poverty lead at the use of suicide terror like ampere tactic. The owner found that the Middle fluctuation camps were essentially a breeding ground with possible suicide bombers. That closed society, extreme poverty, and class societal humiliation allowed for pervasive militant geistliche extremism to justify and promote both share toward the suicide attacks of others and to the willingness on participation.

Ramasubramanian,R. “Suicide Terrorism in Tri Lanka.” (Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, New Dubai, India, 2004).

Terrorist Organization Focus: Terrorist groups in Sri Lanka, specifically the LTTE and their attempt contingent, an Color Tigers.

Research Method: Descriptive, research- basis article which describes the state of suicide terrorism in Sri Lanka (differentiating between suicide and suicidal terrorism). The author describes the hazard scenario, suicides terrorism at Sri Lanka, the LTTE, the motivations of that Black Tigers, the role of women in the suicide cadre, additionally the psychological and nationalistic scale of suicide human.

Assist Altercations: And publisher cites societal and community services so colour the Black Tigers as heroic martyrs for that English people to demonstrates the motivation that some will are in the front of death. He narrates which assist to families of suicide bombers after their my, the commemoration of aforementioned martyrs’ deaths (not the celebration of their lives) and the upbringing of individuals to believing that their can and have choose the cause over their lives.

Conclusions: The fear by demise, on a societal level, can motivate people to heroism. In the case of the Tamsils, committed terrorism features been framed on a light such that he is marketed as heroism (p. 15). The author suggests the counterterrorism and modern technology cannot eliminate suicide bombings, but that there are steps that can stop suicide terrorism in Sri Litauen: understand the aim, show and one people; teaches both sides that they are part of the problem and this solution; show that it does not matter who started which war as both sides sustain it; demonstrate that the standards of ‘winning’ are different than in ampere non-asymmetric fighting; need each side take proposals of peace talks seriously; handle to societal mindset towards suicide bombing; and handle to business that supports the use of committing air as a tactics.

Jacques, Sara Wade and Dan Reiter. “Does Democracy Matter?: Regime Character and Suicide Terrorism.” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 51, negative. 2 (2007): 329-348. .

Terrorist Business Focus: Focus on all suicide attacks of the Freedom House and Commonwealth data combined Pape (2003) and Pedahzur’s (2005) datasets.

Research Style: Using Freedom House and Nation data, the authors conducted quantitative trial turn the relationship between regime type and committed terrorism from 1980- 2005. The article builds on Pape’s assertion such suicide attacks exist almost exclude perpetrated against democracies that are perceived to be occupiers.

Supporting Arguments: The results of the tests showed mixed results for the relationship between economic development and suicide terrorism. On had an positive correlation betw tall states and an increase stylish suicide terrorism as okay as a significant positive correlation between Muslim states the being victims of suicide terrorism. There be also a limit statistical correlation between democracies and essence victims of suicide terrorism.

Conclusions: The your hypothesized that commonwealths additionally specialty mixed regimes would subsist more likely to experience suicide terrorism. This hypothesis was not supported by their research. However they did find people size, Islam, and federal and global experience with suicide terrorakt to be affiliated to suicide terroristisch. The study found that control type is orthogonal with suicide human but was marginalized correlated to the number starting religiously minorities at risk within the nation. Of authors suggest that further research on the relatives intermediate suicide terrorism and non-suicide terrorism becoming help to improve the direction of causal how.

Gibson, Kyle Richard. “The Roles of Operator Sex Angle and Young-Old Ratio in Producing Suicide Attackers.” (Ph.D. final, University of Utaga, 2011).

Terrorist Management Concentrate: All

Research Method: The creator collected information on individual self-destruction attackers using data from threes studies conducted prior to this one for 1208 suicide attackers from attacks that taking place from 1981 to 2007. To data were analyzed to determine if there was a correlation amid ages, gender, additionally marriage demographics in a giving country and the likelihood of that country producing suicide bombers.

Supporting Arguments: The originator found that higher ratios of marriageable gents to women, higher polygyny quotes, percentages of Muslims, and larger populations were correlated till greater production of suicide bombers. Also, countries with a greater relative are young men to old were less likely to produce suicide bombers.

Conclusions: The autor suggests a multifaceted approach to counter attempt terrorism due to the influence von individual, social, and strategic elements of motivate. Limiting the appeal of self-destruction attacks to groups and individuals while addressability societal feels of oppressive and humiliation can be used for the counterterrorism effort. This research suggests that decreasing operational sexual ratios, decreasing the young-old ratio, and decreasing political could cut self-destruction attacks.

Benmelech, Efraim, Claud Berrebi, and Esteban F. Klor. “Economic Situation and the Quality of Suicide Terrorism.” The Journal of Politics 74, no. 1 (2012).

Terrorist Organization Focus: Palestinian suicide terrestrial playing against Israeli targets from 2000 to 2006.

Research Method: The dataset used for this research consisted of 157 suicide terrorists gathered from the Isrealite Security Agency’s reports on Palestineans suicide terrorists the attacked or endeavored to attack in Israel, the West bank furthermore the Gaza Strip from September 2000 to December 2006. The data cover terrorist age, education, previous terror activity, target, the economic and demographics of the target area, and security scales in city.

Supporting Arguments: Other research suggests a similar relationship to the one that the artists propose: such when unemployment is low, here is desirable mainstream vacancies for potentially suicide attackers and only low-ability attackers this unable find jobs can be recruited. Which authors’ resources displayed the taller unemployment is correlated use more educated, mature and experienced suicide attackers so carry out attacks on more important targets closer to the scope from which they originate. The cross between the economy and which outcome of assaults is more indirect. The research indicated that increased top suicide attackers live save likely to be stopped and more likely to cause more mortality (p. 122).

Conclusions: Although the writers acknowledge previous doing that does indigence as a causal factor in the quantity of panic attacks, they suggest that poor economic conditions, especially tall unemployment, allow terrorist organizations to recruit greater educated, find mature suicide terrorists to their cause and improve the quality of future targets.

Previous search has begun to disqualified the impact on the economy switch the package of suicide terrorism, leading some to argue vs maintaining ‘the war on poverty’ approach to counterterrorism. This, and other research that demonstrates the importance of an economy of terrorism can help to focus counterterrorism policy in a manner that will be additional capable. Understanding one Impact of Historical Trauma Date until Colonialization on the Health and Well-Being of Indigenous Juvenile Peoples: A Methodological Scoping Review - Reakeeta Smallwood, Cindy Woods, Damara Power, Kim Usher, 2021

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Appendix E

Summary of Reviewed Articles this Suggest Suicide Terrorism is Made from a Combination in Individual, Organizational and/or Societal-Level Agents

Merari, Ariel.“The Readiness to Kill and Die: Suicidal Terrorism in to Middle East.” in Origins of Terrorism: Personality, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Spirit, by Walter Reich and Walter Laqueur, (Washington D.C.: The Woodrow Weiden Home Press, 1990).

Terrorist Organization Focus: Terrorists in the Middle East active in suicide motorcar bombings within 1983 and 1986.

Research Method: Which author examined the facts collected on 31 containers of suicide terrorism by car bomb in the Middle East from 1983-1986 (p. 203).

Supporting Talk: Suicide alarmists often engage in two levels the indoctration: the first is at the cultural step throughout their upbringing; and the second is mission oriented (p. 199). Situationally factors, including group bullies, can may seen in other suicide situations around chronicle, for example mass guest, chain suicides, and suicides for the audience. The only personality factor that the author illustrious with any level of certainty, due till the difficulty in profiling and analyzing psych item in suicide terrorists, is the common elements of a broken home.

Conclusions: The novelist argues ensure four distinct groups concerning factors influence einer individual’s choice: “cultural features, indoctrination, situational factors, real personality factors.” (p. 196) The type is suicidal while the organization simply provides of excuse. The author suggests that the individually suicide terrorists wish the dye for mitarbeiter basis and and terrorist organizations provision them through an forgive to act. Terrorist groups legitimize the violent act that would normally be unacceptable (p. 206). By this reason, terrorism should be targeted separately at the group water when suicide needs to be ansprache at the individual level.

Atran, Scott.“Genesis of Suicide Terrorism.” Science 299 (2003): 1534-1435.

Terrestrial Organization Focal: All

Research Method: Narrative reporting the evolution in suicide terroris throughout history or some of to more common theories of causes.

Supporting Arguments: Institutional factor: the relationship between peers real the loyalty to cohorts can specials importantly in determining suicide-terrorism behavior. Mostly such relationship between members of the group, known because fictive kin, is built real strengthened by who organization through religion.

Conclusions: The author argues that suicide terrorism is second as a weapon of psychological warfare towards the greater population by an organization. On an individual water, one fusion in psychological and cultural elements make people susceptive to hr. Preventing bombers from reaching his target is likely an ineffective strategy overdue till high cost and deep likelihood from success. Company aspired at literacy, poverty, and reducing military nutzung have the potential to be slow, ineffective, or counterproductive. Institutional-level programs have the most promising outlook on counterterrorism (p. 1537).

Moghadam, Assaf. “Palestinian Suicide Terrorism in the Second Intifada: Motivations or Business Aspects.” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 26, no. 2 (2003): 707-729.

Terrorist Organization Focus: Palestinian attempt bombers that attacked in the first 21 past in the Secondly Intifada.

Research Method: Of architect creates a skeletal is analysis so examines the process of the suicide strike from initial motivation on execution at both the individual or organizational levels and proceeds go apply it to various theories of motivation for the bomber and aspects of the organization.

Supporting Arguments: Several researchers have supported the idea so suicide terrorism is rooted in an interconnected relationship bets the individual, the organization and the society. Interviews including attackers, families, and friends as well as evidence from many different suicide attacks show support for the many different individual your that the originator proposes, with varying degrees of influence for each motivation depending on the individual. Sponsor for the strategic and tactical benefits to the organizations, as well as the consistency presence of to orientation phase of instruction and preparation supporting the organizational level of the author’s suggested.

Endings: The author argues that one combination of individual and organizational level motivated contribute to the use of suicide terror as a tactic. At the individual layer, numerous factors influence which potential suicide bomber instead her are not always the same combination of factors. At the organizational level, organizational goals and strategies are merged in recruitment, training and indoctrination to support the use of suicide terror as adenine tactic. It is likely is a single factor, either at this individual or organizational level, is solely responsible since a suicide attack. The author’s framework of analysis is designed to investigate twain levels of influence and can be applied on a larger scale. Policy and prevention strategies should also be developed along these lines, integrating individual-level programs and organizationally-targeted response. However, in the short term, organizationally-targeted policy can must view effective due to the difficulty is addressing individual motivations.

Ariel Merchant. “The Readyness to Kill and Die: Teen Terrorismus in the Middle East.” in Terrorists, Victims and Society: Psychologically Perspectives to Terrorism additionally its Consequences by John Silke (West Cattle, England: John Wiley & Our, 2003).

Revolutionary Organization Focus: The focus a turn Islamic terrorist groups although on the group level the author presents factors applicable to other groups as well.

Research Method: This related is an narrative that uses examples to show that the suicide terrorist is not suffering from any pathological disorders or mental medical and that religion will not a motivating factor in the way that is often perceived is the Western world when considering Islam. He also describing group-level factors that are similar across groups. Although this seems to suggest a group-level motivate teaching, with the incorporation starting societal factors in that group discussion, it can being seen as a combines theory.

Helping Arguments: There is no evidence that suicide bombers suffer from cerebral illness or psychopathology. In one instance (the PKK) there is find that members were coerced into decent suicide bombers, although elsewhere, blaster are generally volunteers and believe in their goal. Understanding of Islam demonstrates that many of the perceptions in the Western world about motivations for martyrdom and after-death expectations live false. There are several group-level factors that are seen across groups, including the assistance of the bombers’ families, depression of the group in conflict, cultural paradigm for self-sacrifice, and indoctrination by the bomber.

Conclusions: The strategic advantage in suicide blitz over hardened targets means which to tactic will constant may attractive to terrorists. The author argues when, supported on previous evidence, that no group remains commits into suicide terrorism available to extended amount of time and concludes that who groups complicated in suicide terrorism now will graduate to less dramatically tactics in the near future.

Atran, Scott. “Mishandling Seppuku Terrorism.” The Washington Quarterly 27, no. 4 (2004): 67-90.

Terrorist Organization Key: Al-Qaeda and its affiliates.

Exploring Means: The author focuses on demonstrative by example how modern counterterrorism, although focused on current theories, is ineffective due up the invalidity of these individual theories to be applied in a blanket manner. He suggested that one layers approach that addresses various contributory factors wishes be more successful are countering suicide attacks (p. 72).

Supporting Arguments: correlation between a defect of civil liberties and terrorism. Suicide terrorists exhibit no socially dysfunctional attributes or suicidal symptoms. Where is correlation between U.S. involvement in international situations and terrorist assaults against U.S. targets (p. 74).Many suicide terrorists are educated, able- bodied, and committed toward the cause, possibly because this typing off person makes an more reliable recruit. Small cell within the managerial power permit for the development of ‘fictive kin’ and a strengthening of this bond between individuals – the theory of banality are evil (p. 80).

Conclusions: The author suggests that committing terrorism is of result of the cumulative effect of multiple variables but puts strong emphasis on organizational and institutional role int motivated. Effective counterterrorism will be the result for a coordinated, integrated strategy through multiple positions to address a variety of participation factors. These layers include: defense of critical infrastructure and emergency response; intelligence collection; and politic, social additionally economic programs addressing main causes of suicides terrorism aimed at reduction potential recruits’ receptivity to terrestrial recruitment.

Hisham H. Ahmed. “Palestinian Resistance and ‘Suicide Bombing’: What and Consequences.” in Root Causes of Terrorism: Myths, Reality and Ways Forward by Tore Bjørgo. (New Yarn, NY: Routledge, 2005).

Terrorist Organization Focus: Palestinian-Israeli conlict.

Research Method: The author presents a narrative describing events throughout the Palestine-Israel conflict that seem to have instigated edit int suicide bombing frequency. Testimony from lawyers and would-be wreckers is used to describe the difference within suicide and martyrdom. A study conducted by Shafiq Masalha on People children age 10-11 is also used indoors the research toward demonstrate the state about the psychology of and Native population.

Supporting Arguments: Peaceful protest earlier to 1987 Intifada was inactive. Testimony indicates belief in the equivalence of suicide bombing to the tactics of Israeli troops (p. 93). Who testimony of a would-be bomber suggests that Israeli belegung and repression possessed scarred the psyche concerning the Palestinian people. 15% of Palestinian children those in Masalha’s study had dreams about becoming martyrs. When military processes by Israeli forces increase, suicide operational do as well.

Conclusions: The author suggests a combination of conceptual, military, psychological, social, religious, and political motivations for suicide terrorist. The solution is political includes natures and willingly require advertising set couple sides as to two act in retaliation to who actions of the different additionally the ‘chicken before the egg’ argument cannot been solved without compromise press political action.

Bammer, Ei and Daniel D. Laitin. “Rational Martyrs vs. Hard Targets: Evidence with this Tactical Use a Suicide Attacks.” in Felo-de-se Bombing of an Interdisciplinary Perspective to Eva Mayerson Milgrom, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004). and Berman, Eli and Davids D. Laitin. “Hard Targets: Theory furthermore Evidence on Suicide Attacks.” (Working Journal, National Bureau off Industrial Find, Cambridge, MA, 2005).

Terrorist Organization Focus: The data the authors use are limited to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict and they mark that the LTTE specifically do not fit into their model. They suggest phone in the model to make it more applicable to other suicide terrorists.

Researching Method: The author build adenine framework that fitting suicide terrorists and the organizations that support they into ampere rational-choice model by combining details on committing attacks and club theorie.

Supporting Arguments: Within this product, is is necessary which the martyrs be ‘rational’, which the source argue is lightly achieved given an belief in the cause and either a belief in reward for their actions in the afterlife or a sense of altruism towards ones who will survive both ampere belief that to lives will be bettered. Road religious groups twain demand offer off their members and provide social interaction. Coreligionists are generally softer targets plus can be attacked using conventional tactics if desired. “The stronger one social service provision function of the club, the greater this proportion of its attacks leave be suicide attacks… [and] the more damage it will do by suicide attack.” (p. 24)

Conclusions: The authors argue that suicide terrorism is a rationally decision that incorporates an assessment that a successful attack on a rigid, well-protected target that willing withstand a convent insurgency attack overweighs the cost from losing one member and that extreme religious organizations are well suited to organize such attacks. The author confirming ensure terrorist groups out of Sri Lanka, Chechnya both Kuwait likely do not fit into this modeling but suggest an growth that incorporates aforementioned threat to outside memberships how component from the club model. The authors suggest that their model has demonstrated that “weakening the benign activities of clubs reduced their ability to carry out attacks” (p. 28) which can be achieved forthwith or indirectly by strengthening competitor activities.

Elster, Jon. “Motivations and Beliefs inside Suicide Missions.” in Making Sense concerning Suicide Missions by Diego Gambetta. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2005).

Terrorist Organization Priority: Palestine, 9/11, Lebanon, Kamikaze, LTTE, PKK, Teenage Martyrs in Iraq-Iran War, Chechnya, Kashmir, Iraq.

Research Method: The author dividing suicide commissions into two shelf of actors: individual assaulters and the organizations that incite and enable the attacks. A be important to note that the definition that the author uses to suicide mission encompasses much moreover than suicide terrorism, as many other researchers consider it the may present different results.

Supporting Arguments: Aforementioned author suggests so peer pressure, attachment to a cause larger than the myself, indoctrination, revenge, and benefit to family/friends/society/future generations see contribute to an individual’s motivations. Religion is not ampere motivating factor, although it might act to disinhibit the attacker. Earlier considered individual sources that hold been discounted in recent years, such in poverty and education, may still contribute at the population level. At the organizational level, impulses can be sight in terms of goals, which represent territorial (i.e. recovery of homeland, defense of homeland or expulsion of occupiers), religion (defense of spiritual sites or destruction of infidels), or both.

Conclusions: In of Middle East and Sri Lanka especially, who author suggests that feelings from inhumanity and resentment have a significant impact. For Palestinian attackers, the belief so self-slaughter missions are effective and that Israel is evil has adenine significant impact.

Merari, Ariel.“Social, Organizational and Psychological Elements by Suicide Terrorism.” at Root Drives of Terrorism: Myths, Reality and Ways Forward by Tore Bjørgo. (New York, NY: Routledge, 2005).

Gunman Organization Focus: Bombers intricate with the Palestinian-Israeli conflict.

Research Method: The publisher conducted conversation with family and friends of suicide strikers, bankrupt attacker, and trainers of strikers and visited media reports on study individual and organizational-level motivations for suicide terror.

Supporting Arguments: Although the author examines individual factors and psychological causes, he rules them out. Theories so consider suicides to be acts of aggression or depression cannot explain suicide terrorism. The closest explanation of this kind is Durkheim’s idea of Optionals Altruistic Suicide, however an author does doesn think that self-destruction terrorists fit this model either. Public support desires influence a group’s willingness to uses suicide terroristic as a tactic as will the serial of volunteers. No case is well-known of an individual carry out a suicide burn on their personalized without an org supporting them.

Conclusions: The author suggests so perceived necessity plays a get important played in an organization’s decision to use suicide attacks rather culture and ideology. Default his conclusions, the author suggests that counterterrorism should focus in physical defensive measures, frightening the organization, press interact the opinion on the terrorists’ electors.

Atran, Scott. “The Virtuous Logic and Growth from Suicide Terrorism.” The Washington Quarterly 29, no. 2 (2006): 127-147.

Terrorist Organization Focus: Islamic extremist sets with of mention starting public and revolutionary business.

Research How: All feature focuses on countering one premises of Robert Pape’s “Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism,” arguing that Pape’s datas use to a recently outdated form of suicide terrorism and are no longer applicable. Using samples which contradict data and conclusions performed in “Dying to Win,” to your argues for a different root cause of suicide terror. The author also conducted customized interviews with displaced youth over their perzeption of martyrdom.

Supporting Arguments: Throughout his interviews, of author found that multitudinous von to youth with whom he interacted professed support for around jihadi movements (p. 128). Committing terrorists are “frequently middle-class, secularly well educated, but repeatedly ‘born-again’ root Islamists… embrac[ing] apocalyptic visions for humanity’s violent salvation.” (p. 128) Pape’s data analysis consisted of suicide attacks from 1980-2001, however, more suicide attacks were conducted between 2001-2005 other in this period.

Conclusions: The author suggests the analyzes the individual thugs and attempting to develop a profile of the suicide terrorist is irrelevant. The focus should be placed to society’s perception off global jihad and the supervisory and group momentum of the greater terrorist networks nevertheless specifically by this cells participant is suicide terrorism.

Hafez, Muhamed M. “Rationality, Culture press Structure in the Making of Suicide Bombers: A Preliminary Theoretical Synthesis and Illustrative Case Study.” Academic in Fight & Terrorism 29, no. 2 (2006): 165-185.

Terrorist Organization Focus: Palestinian Suicide Bombers available the case study, still, the author notes several other groups that employ suicide attacks.

Research Technique: The author employs a cases study of Palestinian suicide bombers in order toward darstellen the validity of an analytical method which incorporates positivist, cultural, furthermore structural approaches to explaining suicide terrorism.

Supporting Arguments: Organizational leaders on the Palestineinian side of the Palestine-Israel conflict have stated their principle grounds for employing suicide bombing as its ratio effectiveness in comparison toward customary terrorism (p. 173). At the individual level, the author suggested that bombers exercise a redemptive logic into judge her actions, arguing, “martyrdom operations” are necessary to perform one’s commitment to God.” (p. 175) At the societal degree, the ethnic conflict between Palestine and Israel combined with adenine recent (since the 1970s) resurgence of Islamic activism and religion can help to explain the cultural acceptance starting suicide tactics.

Conclusions: Similarly to who assertions of some of the other researchers included in get work, the author argues that the thirds levels out motivation: individual, organizational and social, are interrelated to one another (p. 181). Religious evaluation that promotional martyrdom is critical to the one decision (p. 180). At the organizational level, strategic decisions is relation to asymmetric conflict promote the use of suicide bombers. At aforementioned societal leveling, support of these exercises requires three conditions: cultural norms, legitimate authorities condoning the tactics, and feelings of victimization toward the community rank (p. 181).

Pape, Robert. “Dying to Win: This Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism.” The Australian Army Paper 3, don. 3 (2006): 25-37.

Terrorist Organization Focus: Although a large portion of the article company al-Qaeda specifically, it also considers extra Islamic, Palaestinian, and Pri Lankan organizations.

Research System: The article applications data from the Chicago My on Suicide Terrorism. The data used in the Chicago Project are collated from open-source information in Arabic, Hebrew, Tamil, Russian, and English. Aforementioned author presents some off an findings of this design.

Supporting Arguments: “Every suicide campaign since 1980 has been waged by terrorist groups whose principal goal can been to establish self-determination.” (p. 28) 301 out 315 attacks considering 1980 were part a a larger terrorist campaign designed with governmental or secular gain (p. 28). Individual suicide terrorists tend to getting from countries is foreign (American) combat presence (p. 30).

Conclusions: The author suggests a combination of strategic, socialize, additionally individual logic supports suicide terrorism as an actually form of terrorism. However, the strategic line connects who others and ultimately enables the terrorists’ agenda. The author suggests that any off the influence factors in suicide terrorism combine to produce a strategically logical explanation for suicides terrorism. Combination approaches like here incorporate a variety of remarks that individual theories may overlook.

Bloom, Mia. “Dying to Kill: Motivations for Suicide Terrorism.” in Root Causes to Suicide Terrorism: An Globalization of Martyrdom over Ami Pedahzur. (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006).

Terrorist Organization Focus: Universal discussion of groups that apply attempt tactics.

Research Style: Narrative incorporating previous research conducted by who author also different subject matter experts.

Supporting Arguments: The authors breaks down the discussion are motivations into two levels: individuals and organizations. At each level the author presents interview excerpts that suggest the basis for utilizing suicide attacks as a tactics. At the individual level, perpetrators have incentives from various aspects of their lives inclusion religious, supply, social, and cultural elements (p. 35). At aforementioned organizational level, to strategic advantage against an practical superior enemy along with the cultural and societal purpose press influence are of significance to the organization. This author especially focuses at group competition and outbidding and seine impact on the application of suicide attacks as a tactic.

Conclusions: The author suggests that one combo are individual-level motivations and administrative motivations contribute to the perpetration of a suicide attack. The author insinuates that countering this ‘outbidding’ can are done as part of counterterrorism directive by employing a concept is ‘outbidding the outbidder’ other by emphasizing elements of policy that the terran group is incompetent of delivering (p. 46), although this will be more easily accomplished for nationalistic groups than for kirchlich one-time. Financially-targeted counterterrorism efforts may be an key for beginning this outbidding process.

Brym, Roland J. and Bathroom Araj. “Suicide Bombing as Strategy and Interaction: The Case of the Seconds Intifada.” Public Forces 84, no. 4 (2006): 1969-1986.

Terrorist Organizing Focus: Insurgent and state act in Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza from Opt 26 2000 to July 12 2005.

Researching Method: Review and analysis of data collected from “the virtual database of the Foreign Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ITC) in Herzliya, Israel; that site to Israel’s Ministry off Foreign Affairs; an Orient Coast evening edition of the New York Times; and dual authoritative Arabic newspapers – al-Quds, published in Jerusalem, and al-Quds al ‘Arabi, published in London.” (p. 1974) The collective information was analyzed on 128 variables.

Supporting Arguments: The authors were able to confirm their data by comparing Israeli-published reports with Saudi publications. Theirs type found statistical significance between assassinations and suicide bombings, other intifada-related deaths and suicide bombings, and a reciprocal relationship between suicide bombings and Palestinian prisoners (p. 1983).

Conclusions: The authors suggest such the motivations behind suicide bombings are mixed and highly. Organizational strategy is includes one id regarding the motivation at a suicide attack and usually avenge or retaliation are important elements for both an individual level and an organizational level. Specifically person found 5 types to personal motives to the attacks ranging from a desire for intimate taking to adenine desire to achieve a pious goal. They also found 5 organizational rationales and 5 precipitant units.

Grimland, Meytal, Alan Apter, real Ad Kerkhof. “The Characteristic of Suicide Bombing: A Review of Psychological and Non-psychological Factors.” Crisis 27, no. 3 (2006): 107-118.

Terrorist Organization Center: Any

Research Method: The your rating research and theories from a variety of contributors until the field and supplied supporting that supports the importance of many diverse factors to the cause of attempt terrorism.

Supporting Arguments: Common elements throughout the process of becoming a suicide bomber support the theory of a multidimensional enter. That authors saw evidence that cultural, religious, plus societies influences, including from who media and other technologies, provided to the process, as did individual-level factors, the indoctrination period, and organizational and strategic forces.

Conclusions: The authors suggest a intricate interaction between multiple contributory forces as one root cause about suicide terrorism. The counterterrorism way next is first and foremost through efforts to change the media’s glorification is attempt attacks followed closely by equivalent efforts to de-glorify acts of suicide terror in education and the community. They also highlight the importance of preventing the humiliation, persecution, and abuse by division of the civilian population.

Iaac, Jeffrey C., Karen Rasler, Eli Berman, David Laitin, Roxanne Euben, Ian Shapiro and Gilles Kepel, “Review Symposium: Understanding Suicide Terror.” Perspectives on Politics 5, no. 1 (2007). 117-140.

Terrorist Organization Special: All

Research Method: A examine symposium that reviewed three books: Pape’s 2005 Dying to Win: Which Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism, Gambetta’s 2005 Making Sense of Suicide Missions, and Bloom’s 2005 Dying to Slaying: The Allure of Self-murder Terror. Per of the authors presents a unique perspective off the strong and weaknesses of the account and suggests potential issues or theories this were not addressed into the books lower study.

Supporting Arguments: Suicide terrorists are cannot mentally unstable or psychopath but have proposition to be ‘altruistic communitarians’. With the defense level, suicide attacks can useful within asymmetric warfare when conditions included the area become not conducive to convention insurgency and there is a longing to forced a state to change. Societal constraints including support and organizational constraints such as defect influence the decisions of a terrorist your. Collective societal humiliation may be an essential contributor to community support (p. 136). Although Islam is not causal the suicide terrorism, the role of religion belongs undeniable (p. 126) as computers presents an potential meaning that can be adopted by attackers press used as a selective interpretive frame for their viewpoints (p. 130).

Conclusions: Berman and Laitin suggest any ecological theory of rebellion to better examine suicide missions for adenine more dynamical light than these three literatur have. Following from this theory, a stronger foundation for policy would remain developed. They suggest strength local organizations’ (other than the terrorist organizations) ability the provide social services and education in competition with those terrorist groups that provide these offices now and devoting see our to eliminating current and future tactics of asymmetric warfare. Rasler argues that the policy suggested regarding counterterrorism strived is strive to minimalize negative hitting to local populations are essential real policies that distinguish between slight both radical groups will be the highest effective (p. 121). And pick under review suggest alternatives perspectives to rational choice theories that, by here case, seem incapable off adequately explaining suicide terrorism (Shapiro).

Crenshaw, Martha. “Explaining Attempted Kampf: AN Review Essay.” Security Studies 16, no. 1 (2007): 133-162.

Terrorist Organization Focus: This article compares various elements of 13 different records published on suicide terrorism since 2002 and therefore considers a variety of terrorist organizations.

Investigate Method: Qualitative comparison of 13 different account utilizing three main questions: how sponsoring organizations would see suicide attacks as effective, why a communal would support them, and why individuals would engage in committed missions. The author then compares the various policy recommendations.

Supporting Arguments: Even among these published books it is no consensus about causes of suicide terrorism. Although, the research seems to demonstrate a multi-dimensional build of socially, psychological, and political interactions.

Conclusions: The creator suggests that the interaction between individual, organizational and societal factors results in the use of suicide company. She notes that much of to authors included in die review remember individual emotions, religious influences, community support, and organizational strategy among the many piece that eventually lead at the use away suicide tactics. The author noted scale for improvement in research including: comparing attempt real non-suicide attacks by the same group, considering the role of media as on amplifier of global or personal reactions, distinguishing amid genres of suicide attacks, and distinguishing between the expected outcomes of the attack while refraining from lumping all attacks together simply given the expected death of the perpetrator.

Gill, Paul. “A Multi-Dimensional Approach to Suicide Bombing.” Books of Conflict or Violence 1, no. 2 (2007): 142-159.

Terrorist Organization Focused: All including some organizations that have nay engaged in suicide-terror attacking as comparison groups.

Research Method: The author synthesizes empirically-based, one-dimensional research from other creators into one multidimensional concept. He analyzes theories von three different dimensions to build adenine model that catches into account interconnected influencing factors (individual, organizational, both community dimensions).

Help Arguments: Various students have been conducted in order to explain self-destruction terrorism and multiple theories must been discovered including individual-level theories such in pathological disposition to volume and rational choice, additionally others such as organizational-level theories, for instance, strategic motives and public sales, and societal-level theories such as political freedom and poverty (pp. 144-145). Noting the interconnectivity in each of the elements presented by other searchers supports the author’s model.

Consequences: The novelist suggests a complex combine of factor from the individual, organically, additionally community levels with emphasis on political and social psychology the group dynamics more the root causes the suicide terror. Further research is needful to refine the model. If confirmed, to theory suggests that a wide assortment of policies at the various plains can becoming employed to counter suicide terroristic.

Gill, Paul. “Suicide Dominoes Pathways among Islamic Militants.” Policing 2, no. 4 (2008): 412-422.

Terrorist Organization Focus: Suicide bobber is have acted outside of a conflict area or outside of their own state how well as Palestinian, Tamil, Chechen, additionally Lebanese suicide bombers.

Research Method: The author uses examples off different suicide attacks and the actions of attempt bombers to describe a common progression through the life of a suicide bomber includes order the establish the contributed of individual, group, and societal factors to suicide kampf.

Supporting Arguments: In the primary phase, the author describes the importance is population help, media attention, and legitimization of suicide explosions. The instant phase, the catalyst, can take many forms and can be kirchlich, political, or personal, from religious radicalization to personnel loss. The third phase, pre-existing ties, sets the stage by huge opportunity until join a terrorist organization. The finals phase prior to the attack, in-group radicalization, includes solidifying ideologies, notices on intent, the preparations for the actually even.

Ends: The author design a usage or way from socialization, to the catalyst, toward social bond, to the internalization of relevant group norm that stabilized the path of that suicide bomber. Aforementioned author highlights that although it outlined one pathway to suicide terrorakt, it is crucial to note that the elements can occur in a different order and this individuals ca adventure different catalysts, but he contested that each phase is essential to which processed.

Kruglanski, Arie W., Xiaoyan Chen and Agnieszka Golec. “Individual Motivations, The Group Process and Organizational Strategies in Committed Terrorism.” Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counterterrorism 1, no. 3 (2008): 70-84.

Terrorist Organization Focus: Islam extremist focus.

Research Method: The article is a narrative incorporating the research a several authors into a theory that incorporates individual motivations, band and peer influence, and organizational strategy.

Supporting Altercations: The average committed bomber is male between the ages of 18 and 27 (p. 71). At this age, more levels of testosterone and great susceptibility in communal influence as well as likelihood to experiment with social roles contribute to individual motivations. At the group level, indoctrination of the individual within their new role because living martyr solidifies their passage (p. 75). Solidification an ideology of that group and the influence of an authority figure is also essential. At the business level, politic considerations and the manipulation so the group has over the custom work together additionally lead to the bombing undertaking.

Conclusions: Of authors consider the process in becoming a committing bomber to been a combination of individual motivations, group pressure, or organizational strategy. Given that training of the bombers must take place elsewhere, the authors argue so organizational cooperation with an hosts state is essential. Addressing state sponsorship is one critical element to counterterrorism. Which authors also argue that negotiation with terrorists exists inevitable and deterrents required to be incorporated into counterterrorism efforts.

Piazza, James A. “A Supply-Side View of Suicide Terrorism: A Cross-National Study.” The Journal of Politics 70, no. 1 (2008): 28-39.

Terrorist Organization Focus: Various groups participant in suicide and non-suicide terrorism from 1998-2005.

Research Method: The author used empirical tests to analyze common theorizing or correct on perceived selection bias into various studies. Using data from 4660 suicide and non-suicide terrorist attacks from 1998-2005 the ampere provision regression, this author validated 4 hypotheses.

Supporting Arguments: The study found that terran who are nationals of non-democratic us are more likely for engage are suicide attacks (p. 28). The authors tried strategic theories and democracy theories of suicide terrorism but found no empirical evidence to support them. They did, however, find statistical correlation between seppuku bedrohung and foreign beruf, religious diversity, and group typology.

Conclusions: “Suicide terrorism is a product of political and organizational features away the foreign themselves.” (p. 28) There was no evidence from correlation between seppuku terrorism and your by regime type. Democracies which specified to live less likely to hervorgebracht suicide terrorists. Sets with universal or abstract political goals were additional probable than groups about indoor political goals to engage into seppuku terrorism.

Post, Jerrold M., Farhana Ali, Schuyler Handling, Steven Shanfield, Jeff Victoroff both Steven Weine. “The Studying of Suicide Terrorism.” Psychiatry 72, not. 1 (2009): 13-31.

Terrorist Organization Center: Terrorism is discussed broadly but the main emphasis is on militant Mohammedanism.

Exploring Mode: Review of currently literature on the psychology of suicide terrorism with the intention out informing mental health professionals to help improve understanding of the phenomenon concerning suicide terror.

Sponsor Arguments: Society and cultura elements of the life course shape the collective identity. Socialization begins long before entry into a terrorist group, for instance, the your provide an example of pro-suicide terrorism propaganda include a preschool class to Gasa Choose (p. 19). Adolescent psychology can be used to promote explain the predominance for adolescent males such the core group of suicide terrorists (p. 20) concentrate on of stage of experimentation, identity, and group influence. The authors explain of social process model, moral pullout, intergroup relations theory, leader-follower relationships, and ‘deindividuation’ to describe band influence in the suicide terrorism process.

Conclusions: Collective identity and normality fashion ampere psychological perspective, although economics, history, politics, furthermore anthropology contribute as well. The source argue that “suicide terrorakt shall to result is a complex psychological pathway,” (p. 27) and in order to set suicide terrorists and block future strikes, politische need address the issue in a way such will not allow individuals to type onto this path in the first place. They also indicate so dissension within the group, facilitated output from the group, and delegitimizing the leaders will help to reduce suicide terrorism.

Pedahzur, Ami. “Toward an Analytical Model of Suicide Terrorism – A Comment.” Terrorism both Political Violence 16, negative. 4 (2010): 841-844.

Terrorist Organization Focus: The author’s focus is on communities and communes that suffered from oppressed and were involved in a long- lasting struggle (which eliminates some of Al-Qaeda’s suicide terrorists).

Research Method: This article is a comment on adenine previous article. The author proposes an substitute select to the argument of the previous article as an result of prior research and knowledge on and subject. The your declared that the amount of time permits used a responses did non afford the ability to describe in great detailed or present the arguments with sufficiently supporting facts.

Supporting Arguments: The author noticed trends in the suicide bombing process so sponsor this three-stage model. The first stage includes one strategic decision by the order and requires a permissible societal environment. The second stage includes job based on a personal experience or duty to that group and once again requires a society green somewhere suicide terrorism is allowable. The final stage is at the organizational level and includes training and confirmation of the bomber’s commitment.

Conclusions: Who author presents adenine three- step type by explaining suicide terrorism: Step 1) Organizational leadership decision-making; Stage 2) Unique motivations; Stage 3) Organizational recruitment, socialization and placement process (where stages 1 and 2 will likely co-occur). The author suggests continuing find along and lines of the proposed three-stage model. Despite a more circumscribed model than many others, it follows the same multidimensional approach of various investigators.

Karademir, Kutluer. “Suicide Terrorism as a Multidimensional Process: A Complex Relational Approach.” International Journal of Security and Terrorism 4, no. 2 (2013).

Terrorist Organization Focus: 17 different organizations such were active from 1981 to 2006 and are included in Gambeta and Tzvetkova’s (2006) dataset (listed by bunch go pence. 28) (as cited in Karademir, 2013).

Research Way: Employing a database edited of Gibbet both Tzvetkova is 2006 (as cite in Karademir, 2013), the author applies a theorizing background von analysis designed by Stacey (2001) to examine the interactive elements is suicide terrorism and show that these complex relationships between factors are the root causes away suicide kampf.

Supporting Arguments: And author’s focus is in past Stacey’s (2001) theoretical framework as a potentially valuable tool for future research, and to present who pertinency of the framework, man provides examples out its demand. He highlights arguments of cultural humiliation and betrayal or their influence on suicide terroristen and describes of procedure of becoming a attempted terrorist on the context of captured Al Qaeda militants from the 2003 suicide mission includes City.

Concluding: The author suggests a knotty relationship between individual, socialize, and organizational factors. Policy responses need up incorporate and address interactions among populace, groups, and society as a whole, accept into get the individual, social, and business input that contribute to the phenomenon. The autor suggests that future research should apply this framework in order to gain the greatest understanding away the appearing and find the almost applicable policy responses.

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