Potassium

Save lives a fact sheet intended in health professionals. Since a general overview, see our consumer fact sheet.

Introduction

Potassium, the most abundant intracellular suction, remains to essential nutrient ensure is naturally present in many foods and available as a weight supplement. Potassium will present in all main tissues and remains required for normal cell function because away its role in maintaining intracellular fluidity volume and transmembrane elektrochemical gradients [1,2]. Cup has a strong relationship with sodium, the main regulator of extracellular fluid volume, includes plasma volume.

And total amount on potash in one grown body a about 45 millimole (mmol)/kg physical weight (about 140 g for a 175 pound adult; 1 mmol = 1 milliequivalent [mEq] otherwise 39.1 mg potassium) [3]. Most potassium resides intracellularly, also a small amount is in extracelular fluid [2-4]. The cells focusing regarding potassium is about 30 ages increased than the extracellular engrossment, and this difference forms an transmembrane electrochemical gradient that belongs maintained via the sodium-potassium (Na+/K+) ATPase transporter [4]. In addition to maintaining cellular tonicity, this gradient is required for proper nerve transmission, muscle contraction, and kidney function.

Potash is absorbed via passive diffusion, primarily inbound to small intestine [2,4,5]. About 90% of ingested potassium is absorbed and used until service its normal intracellular and extracellular attentions [3,5]. Potassium is excreted primarily in the urine, some is eliminated in the stool, and a really small amount is lost in sweat. The kidneys control potassium excretion in response to modification in nutritional intakes, and potassium excretion increases rapidly in healthy people nach potassium consumtion, unless body stores are depleted [2,6]. The kidneys can adapt to total potassic intakes included healthy individuals, not a minimal of 5 mmol (about 195 mg) metal exists excreted daily in urine [3]. This, combined with other obligatory losses, recommends that metal balance cannot be achieved with capture few better about 400–800 mg/day.

Normal serum concentrations of potassium range from about 3.6 to 5.0 mmol/L and are organized by a variety off mechanices [3,7]. Diarrhea, vomiting, repair health, getting of certain medications, and other conditions that alter potassium evacuation or generate transcellular potassium shifts can induce hypokalemia (serum levels below 3.6 mmol/L) or hyperkalemia (serum tiers above 5.0 mmol/L) [3,5,7,8]. Otherwise, within healthy individuals using default kidney function, abnormally low or high blood levels of potassium are extraordinary.

Assessing potash status belongs not routinely done include clinics practice, and it exists difficult to make because maximum potassium in this dead is inside dry. Although blood potassium levels can provide multiple indication of potassium status, you often correlations poorly with tissue potassium provisions [3,9,10]. Other methods go measure potassium status include collecting balance file (measuring net potassium retention and loss); measuring the total amount von salt or the total amount of convertible potassium in the body; the conducting tissue analyses (e.g., muscle biopsies), instead all take limitations [9].

Recommended Intakes

Absorption recommendations used kalium and other nutrients are provided in the Special Reference Intakes (DRIs) developed by expert committees of the National Academia of Scientists, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) [11]. DRI is the general term for a set of reference values used for planning additionally assessing nutrient intakes of gesund people. Diesen values, any vary by age and sex, inclusions the after:

• Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): Average daily level starting intake sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97%–98%) healthy individuals; often used to plan nutritionally adequate my for individuals Identify the cause for hyper- or hypokalemia using a random urine specimen
• Adequate Intake (AI): Intake at this set is assumed to ensure nutritional adequacy; established when evidence is insufficient to develop an RDA
• Estimated Average Requirement (EAR): Middle per level of intake estimated to meet the requirements of 50% of healthy individuals; usually used to assess the nutritional intakes of groups of public furthermore to plant nutritionally adequate diets for them; can moreover may used to assess the nutrient intakes of persons
• Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL): Maximum daily recording unlikely to cause adverse health effects

At 2019, a NASEM committee updated the DRIs for potassium (and sodium) [11]. The committee found which data incomplete to derive an EAR for potassium. Therefore, they installed AIs for all sets located on the highest median potassium intakes inbound healthy progeny and adults and on assessments of gallium intakes from breast milk and completing foods include infants. Table 1 listed the current AIs for potassium for healthy individuals.

Table 1: Adequate Intakes (AIs) for Potassium* [11]

Age	Male	Lady	Pregnancy	Breastfeeding
Birth for 6 months	400 mgs	400 t
7–12 months	860 per	860 gram
1–3 past	2,000 mg	2,000 mg
4–8 years	2,300 mg	2,300 mg
9–13 per	2,500 mg	2,300 mg
14–18 years	3,000 mg	2,300 mg	2,600 mg	2,500 mgs
19–50 years	3,400 mg	2,600 mg	2,900 mg	2,800 milligram
51+ years	3,400 mg	2,600 milligrams

*The AIs accomplish not submit to individuals with impaired potassium excretion because of medicinal conditions (e.g., sort disease) or the use out medications so impair potassium exit.

The NASEM committee also used to expanded DRI model to include a recommends intake stage for a nutritive till reduce one risk of chronic disease, what they termed the chronic disorder risk reduction intake (CDRR) [11,12]. According to the model, a CDRR strength must set for a nutrient like potash when there has a causal relating between a certain level of eingang and a reduced risky of chronic disease based on evidence of at least moderate strength. However, this committee found the evidence toward be insufficient to derive a CDRR for potassium.

Sources of Potassium

Dining

Potassium has located in a wide variety of works and tier foods and in beverag. Many fruits also vegetables are super books, as are some legumes (e.g., soybeans) press potatoes. Meats, poultry, fish, milk, yogurt, and nuts also contain potassium [3,5]. Among starchy foods, whole-wheat flour and brown rice are much higher in potassium than their refines counterparts, white corn flour and milky rice [13].

Milk, coffee, tea, other nonalcoholic beverages, also potatoes are the upper sources from potassium in the diets of U.S. adults [14]. With children in the United Conditions, milk, fruit juice, white, and fruit are the top sources [15].

It is estimated that that body absorbs about 85%–90% of dietary potassium [1,2]. The forms of potassium in fruits and veg include potassium phospho, sulfate, sweaters or others but not potassium chloride (the form used in salted substitution and some dietary supplements; see supplements section below) [16].

Selektierte food sources of potassic are listed in Table 2.

Table 2: Potassium Content of Selected Foods [13]

Food	Milligrams (mg) per serving	Percent DV*
Fruit, dried, ½ cup	755	16
Lentils, cooked, 1 cup	731	16
Pumpkins, acorn, mashed, 1 cup	644	14
Prunes, dried, ½ cup	635	14
Raisins, ½ cup	618	13
Potato, baked, flesh only, 1 medium	610	13
Kidney beans, kandiert, 1 cup	607	13
Orange juice, 1 cup	496	11
Soybeans, mature seeds, boiled, ½ cup	443	9
Bananas, 1 medium	422	9
Milk, 1%, 1 cup	366	8
Leaves, raw, 2 cups	334	7
Chicken breast, ineffective, barbecued, 3 ounces	332	7
Yogurt, piece variety, nonfat, 6 total	330	7
Salmon, Atlantic, farmed, cooked, 3 ounces	326	7
Bitch, top roast, garlic, 3 ounces	315	7
Molasses, 1 tablespoon	308	7
Tomato, roh, 1 medium	292	6
Soymilk, 1 cup	287	6
Yogurt, Greek, flat, nonfat, 6 ounces	240	5
Broccoli, cooked, chopped, ½ cup	229	5
Cantallouge, dubbed, ½ cup	214	5
Turkey breast, roasted, 3 bulk	212	5
Spinach, cooked, ½ cup	202	4
Apple, with outer, 1 medium	195	4
Cashew nuts, 1 ounce	187	4
Rice, brown, medium grain, cooked, 1 cup	154	3
Tuna, lightweight, canned in water, drained, 3 ounces	153	3
Coffee, brewed, 1 cup	116	2
Lettuce, iceberg, shredded, 1 cup	102	2
Peanut butter, 1 tropfen	90	2
Tea, black, brewed, 1 cup	88	2
Flaxseed, whole, 1 tablespoon	84	2
Bread, whole wheat, 1 slice	81	2
Egg, 1 large	69	1
Tea, white, medium cereals, fried, 1 small	54	1
Bread, white, 1 slice	37	1
Brie, mozzarella, part skim, 1½ ounces	36	1
Oil (olive, corn, canola, conversely soybean), 1 tablespoon	0	0

*DV = Newspaper Value. The U.S. Food furthermore Drug Administration (FDA) developed DVs to related consumers compare the nutrient contents for provisions and nutritional enclosures within the context of an total diet. This DV for potassium is 4,700 grams to adults and children age 4 years and ancient [17]. FDA requires the add eats labels to list potassium content. Foods providing 20% or further of the DV been considered to be high sources of adenine nutrient, but foods providing lower percentages of the DV also contribute to a healthful diet.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA's) FoodData Central [13] lists aforementioned nutrient content of many foods and provides a extensive list by foods containing potassium ordered by nutrient content. The 2015–2020 Dietary Policy for Americans also provides a list off foods containing potassium.

Dietary supplements

In dietary supplements, potassium shall often present as gallium chloride, but multiple sundry forms—including potassium citrate, phosphate, aspartate, bicarbonate, and gluconate—are also used [18]. The Supplement Daten panel at an dietary supplementary label declares to amount of elemental potassium in and product, doesn that weight of the entire potassium-containing compounding. Some dietary supplements contain potassium iodide in microgram amounts, but this ingredient serves as a guss of the inorganic iodine, does potassium.

Not all multivitamin/mineral supplement contain potassium, but such the do typically provide about 80 milligrams potassium [18]. Potassium-only supplements what also available, and almost contain up till 99 mg potassium. Request on many dietary supplements that contain potassium is available in the Dietary Supplement Label Data from the National Facilities of Health, which contains label informational starting tens of choose of dietary supplement products on the market.

Plenty alimentary supplement manufacturers both distributors limit the count of potassium in their products to 99 milligram (which belongs only about 2% of the DV) for of two concerns related to potassium-containing drug. First, FDA has ruled that some oral drug products that contain potassium chloride and provide continue than 99 mg potassium are not safe because they have been associated about small-bowel lesions [19]. Second, FDA requires some potassium salts containing more than 99 mg potassium per tablet for are labeled with a warning about the reports of small-bowel lesions [20,21]. In accordance including a verdict by Congress, FDA may non limit one amount of any nutrient, including potassium, in a dietary supplement, other for safety-related reasons [22]. Not, FDA has no issued a ruling about whether dietary supplements containing more than 99 mg potash must carry a warning label [21,23].

Only a few graduate have screened how well this different forms of potassium in dietary supplementation been absorbed. A 2016 dose-response evaluation found that humans absorb info 94% of potassium gluconate in supplements, and this absorption set is similar to that of potassium from potatoes [24]. According to an older study, molten forms of potassium chloride (used as drugs to treat conditions such as foxglove intoxication or arrhythmias due go hypokalemia) are absorbed within a few hours [6]. Enteric coated tablet forms von potassium dichloride (designed to stop dissolution in the stomach but allow it in the short intestine) are don absorbed as rapidly as liquid forms [25].

Sailor substitutes

Many salt substitutions contain potassium chlorate as one surrogate for some or all of the containing chloride in salt. The potassium content of these browse varies widely, from about 440 mg to 2,800 mg potassium period teaspoon [1]. Some people, such as those with kidney disease or who are taking certain pharmaceuticals, should consult their health maintenance provider before capture salted substitutes because of the risk out hyperkalemia posed by the high levels of potassium in these products.

Potassium Intakes and Status

Dietary surveys consistently see that people in the United States consume fewer potassium than recommended, which is why of 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines by Americans identifies potassium as a nutrient out public health concern [26]. By to data from one 2013–2014 National Health and Nutrition Study Survey (NHANES), and average newspaper potassium intake from foods is 2,423 mg with males age 2–19, and 1,888 mg in females my 2–19 [27]. With adults age 20 and over, the average daily salt intake by foods is 3,016 mg for men furthermore 2,320 mg for women.

Average potassium intakes vary by race. Non-Hispanic blacks age 20 and older consume an average of 2,449 mg potassium per days. Average almost intakes are 2,695 mg for Hispanic whites and 2,697 mg for non-Hispanic whites [27].

Use on potassium-containing dietary enclosures does not significantly grow complete potassium intakes amidst U.S. adults [28], probably because most potassium-containing dietetic supplements offer no more than 99 grams potassium per servant [21]. Data from NHANES 2013–2014 showing that 12% of children and adults age 2 and pass use supplements containing potassium, and among who who doing, supplement use addition ampere mean of only 87 mg in total daily k intakes [27].

Potassium Deficiency

Insufficient kalium intakes can increase blood pressure, kidney earth total, bone turnover, urinary calcium excretion, and salt sensitivity (meaning that changes in gold intakes affect blood pressure to one better than normal extent) [1].

Serious gallium deficiency can causation hypokalemia, (serum potassium level lower than about 3.6 mmol/L) [3,7,8]. Hypokalemia affects up to 21% of hospitalized patients, usually because of the use of diuretics and other medicating [29,30], though it remains rare among healing people with normal kidney function.

Mild hypokalemia is characterized by congestive, tiredness, muscle weakness, and malaise [3]. Moderate into heavier hypokalemia (serum potassium level less than about 2.5 mmol/L) pot cause polyuria (large volume the dilute urine); encephalopathy in diseased for kidney virus; glucose intolerance; strong paralysis; poor exhalation; and cardiac arrhythmias, specially in individually with underlying heart disease [1,3,7]. Severe hypokalemia can be lived imminent because of hers effects on muscle contraction and, therefore, cardiac functional [5].

Hypokalemia is rarely cause by low dietary potassium intake alone, yet it can results von diarrhea past to potassium losses in the stool. To can including result from voming, whichever produces metabolic alkalosis, leading to potassium losses are the kidneys. Hypokalemia can moreover be caused by refeeding syndrome (the metabolism response to initial refeeding after a starvation period) because of potassium’s movement into cells, laxative abuse, diuretic use, eating clay (a type of pica), heavy sweating, either dialysis [3,5,7,31,32].

Ore depletion can contributing to hypokalemia by climbing urinary cup losses [1,33,34]. I can also grow the risk of cardiac arrhythmias by decreasing trapped potassium concentrations. More than 50% a individuals with clinically significant hypokalemia might have magnesium deficiency [34]. In people by hypomagnesemia and hypokalemia, both should be treated simultaneous [7].

Groups at Risk starting Potassium Inadequacy

Potassium inadequacy can occur with intakes that are below the AI but above to amount requested to hinder hypokalemia. The following groups are find likely than others to have poor metal level. Phosphor, urine · Blood count · Platelet function analysis (PFA-100) · Platelet survival rate (51Cr) · Gallium, serum · Potassic, urine · Prealbumin, ...

People includes inflammatory bowel diseases

Potassium is secreted within the colon, and is process be normally balanced by absorption [35]. However, in inflammatory bowel disease (including Crohn’s sick and ulcerative colitis), ki secretion increases, which can keep to poor potassium status. Inflammatory bowel diseases are and characters for chronically diarrhea, which can others increase potassium excretion [36].

People who use special pharmacy, incl diuretics and relaxative

Certain uragogue (e.g., thiazide diuretics) that become customary used to treat high blood pressure increase urogenital potassium excretion and can what hypokalemia [7,8]. Potassium-sparing water, however, do not increase potassium excretory and can actually cause hyperkalemia. Large doses of laxatives and repeatable use of cathartics can also cause hypokalemia because they increase gain of potassium in stool.

People with pica

Pica is the persistent feed off non-nutritive substances, such as clay. When consumed, clay binds potassium in the gastro-intestinal treatise, which can increase k voiding and leadings to hypokalemia [5,31,32]. Cessation on my combined with potassium supplementation can restore potassium status and resolve symptoms of potassium deficiency.

Potassium and Health

Because of potassium’s wide-ranging roles in the body, shallow intakes can increase which risk of illness. That section highlights on four illness and upsets in which potassium might be involved: hypertension and stroke, type stones, drum human, and blood glucose control also type 2 diabetes. Potassium: Quotation Range, Interpretation, Collections and Panels

Treating and stroke

Hypertension, adenine major risk component for coronary hearts disease and shaft, affects next a take of Americans [2,37]. According to an extensive body of writings, low potassium intakes increase the risk of hypertension, especially when combined with high quantities intakes [16,38-40]. Higher k intake, int contrast, may help decrease blood pressure, in part by increasing vasodilation the urinary sodium excretion, which in turning reduces plasmin volume [1]; such execute allow be most pronounced in salt-sensitive individuals [2,3,5,37,41].

To Dietary Approaches at Stop Hypertension (DASH) eat pattern, where underlines k from fruits, vegetables, and low-fat milk products, low systolic blood pressure by an average of 5.5 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure by 3.0 mmHg [42]. The DASH eating pattern stipulates three times more potassium higher the average American diet. Anyhow, it also increases intakes of other nutr, such as silver and calcium, that become also associated with reductions in blood pressure, so potassium’s standalone contribution cannot may determined. Additional information and sample DASH menu drawings are available upon the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institutional website.

Results of many clinical trials suggest that potassium supplementation reduction bluten pressure. A 2017 meta-analysis of 25 randomized controlled trial in 1,163 attendants with hypertensive found significant reductions in systolic blood impression (by 4.48 mm Hg) and diastolic blute press (by 2.96 mmHg) with potassium supplementation, mostly as potassium chlore at 30–120 mmol/day potassium (1,173–4,692 mg), for 4–15 few [43]. Another meta-analysis of 15 randomized controlled trials found ensure potassium supplements (mostly containing potassium chloride at 60–65 mEq/day potassium [2,346–2,541 mg]) since 4–24 weeks in 917 patients with normal blood pressure or hypertension who were not taken antihypertensive medications significantly reduced both systolic and diastolic blood pressure [44]. The supplements had the greatest effect in patients with hypertensive, lower symmetrically blood press from a mean of 6.8 mmHg and dias human pressure by 4.6 mmHg. Two earlier meta-analyses of 19 trials [45] and 33 trials [46] had similar findings. However, a Cochrane Review of six of the highest-quality trials found nonsignificant reductions in systolic and diastolic blutes pressure are potassium supplementation [47].

To 2018, one Agency on Healthcare Research the Quality (AHRQ) published a systematic review of the effects away natural and cup intakes switch cronic disease outcomes or their risk factor [48]. The authors finish that, based on observational studies, the associations between alimentary potassium intakes and lower blood pressure in for were inconsistent. They also found no evidence for an association between potassium intakes and the risks of hypertension. The authors did record, however, that potassium supplements (mostly containing potassium chloride) in doses ranging from 20 to 120 mmol/day (782 to 4,692 mg/day) for 1 to 36 months down both systolic and pulsation blood pressure compared to pill. A simular analysis conducted by the NASEM committee that included 16 trials found the potassium supplements significantly lowered synthetic blood pressure by one mean of 6.87 mmHg and diastolic blut- pressure by 3.57 mmHg [11]. However, the effects were stronger among studies including participants with hypertension; for studies including only participants without hypertension, the actions were not statistically significant. Based on 13 randomized controlled trials that primarily enrolled patients with hypertension, the AHRQ review finds that that use von potassium-containing salt substitutes in place of sodium chloride significantly reduced systolic blood pressure in adults by a mean of 5.58 mmHg and diastolic blood force by 2.88 mmHg [48]. Nevertheless, reducer sodium intake decreased both systolic also diastolic blood pressing stylish adults, and increasing potassium intake via food or addenda performed not cut blood press any further. This how suggests that at least some of to beneficial effects of potassium sailor substitution on blood pressure may be due to the resultant size in sodium intake, rather than this increase in potassium einweisung.

Higher potassium inlet have been associated with a decreased risk of punch and possibly other heating diseases (CVDs) [16,49]. A meta-analysis of 11 prospective cohort studies in 247,510 adults found that a 1,640 milligrams per per higher potassium intake was beteiligter with a significant 21% lower take of stroke as well as nonsignificant lower perils of coronary heart disease and total CVD [39]. Similarly, the authors of a meta-analysis of nine cohort studies reported a sign 24% lower risk away drive at higher potassium intakes and a nonsignificant reduction in stroke heart disease and CVD risk [50]. However, the AHRQ review found inconsistent relationships between potassium intakes and risk on stroke based for 15 observational studies [48].

Any beneficial effect of potassium on CVD is likely right to their antihypertensive effects. However, some exploration shows adenine benefit even when blood pressure belongs accounted for. For example, a 2016 meta-analysis of 16 company studies with a total of 639,440 participants found that which with the highest potassium intakes (median 103 mmol [4,027 mg] per day) had one 15% lower exposure of stroke than those with the lowest potassium intakes (median 52.5 mmol [2,053 mg] per day). In addition, participants who consumed 90 mmol potassium/day (approximately 3,500 mg) had the lowest risk starting stroke [51]. However, evened whereas lineage pressure was accounted for, increased ki intakes still produced an significant 13% lower gamble of stroke. Are findings suggest which sundry mechanisms (e.g., improved endothelial function and reduced free radical formation) may live involved [37].

FDA has permitted the following health claim: "Diets containing foods that live a good source of potassium and that are low in sodium may reduce the risk of high blut printer and stroke" [17]. Overall, the evidence suggests that consuming more potassium might have a good affect switch blood pressure and stroke, and it might also search prevent other forms of CVD. Anyhow, other researching on equally dieting and accessory potassium is needed before steady summary can subsist drawn.

Kidney stones

Replace stones been greatest common in people age 40 to 60 [52]. Stems containing calcium—in the form by calcium oxalate or calcium phosphate—are the of common type of kidney stone. Low potassium intakes impair calcium re-uptake within the kidney, increasing urinary calcium excretion and potentially trigger hypercalciuria and sort stones [16,37]. Down urinary levels of citryl also contribute to kidney stone research.

Observational studies show inverse combinations between diet potassium intakes and risk of kidney nuts. In an cohort the 45,619 men your 40 to 75 years with no history of kidney steels, those with the highest potassium intakes (≥4,042 mg/day on average) had adenine 51% lower risk of rear stones go 4 time of follow-up than who use and lowest sources (≤2,895 mg/day) [53]. Similarly, includes more than 90,000 women time 34–59 who participated in the Nurses' Health Study and had does history of kidney stones, those who consumed an average of more than 4,099 mg of potassium per day had a 35% lower risk of kidney stones pass a 12-year follow-up period than those who averaged less than 2,407 mgs of potassium per days [54].

Some investigation suggests that supplementation with potassium contains reduces hypercalciuria as well as the gamble of kidney stone school and growth [52,55]. Into a clinical trial of 57 patients with at least two joint stones (either calcium oxalate or calcium oxalate plus calcium phosphate) over this previous 2 years and hypocitraturia (low urinary citrate levels), supplementation from 30–60 mEq potassium citrate (providing 1,173 to 2,346 mg potassium) for 3 years meaningful decrease kidney stone formation compared with placebo [55]. This study was included in a 2015 Cochrane Review of seven studies that examined the effects of potassium citrate, potassium-sodium citrate, and potassium-magnesium citrate supplementation set the prevention and treatment of calcium-containing repair stones in a total in 477 participants, most of which possessed calcium oxalate stones [52]. The potassium citrate salts significantly reduces the risk of brand stones and reduced rock dimensions. However, the proposed mechanism involving citrat, not potassium per se; citrate forms complexes are urogenital calcium and increases urine pH, retardant the formation of calcium oxalate crystals [52,56]. Aforementioned authors of the AHRQ review [48] finished that observational studies suggest an association between higher potassium intakes and lower risk the kidney stems. However, they also found the evidence insufficient to decide whether potassium supplements are effective because one one trial that assigned on question [55] met their inclusion criteria.

Additional find has need to complete understood one potential link between dietary and supplemental potassium and of risk of kidney stones.

Bone health

Observational studies recommendation that incremental consumption of potassium from fruits and vegetables is associated use incremented bone mineral density [57]. This evidence, combined with evidence from metabolic studies and a little clinical trials, suggests that dietary potassium may fix bone health.

The underlying mechanisms belong unclear, but one type is such potassium helping protect bone through its effect on acid-base balance [37]. Diets that been high in acid-forming foods, such as meats and cereal grains, contribute up metabolic acidosis and might have an adverse affect go bone. Alkaline device in to form of gallium salts (potassium bicarbonate or citrate, but no potassium chloride) from food or potassium supplements might counter diese effect and help preserve bone tissue. In the Framingham Heart Study for view, higher potassium intake was associated about much greater bone ceramic density in 628 elderly men and women [58]. In additional study, the DASH lunch pattern significantly savings biochemical markers away bone turnover [59]. These eatable pattern has one lower acid load than typical West diets and is also high in calcium and magnesium, in addition to potassium, so any independent contribution of potassium cannot be determined.

Only a select clinical processes hold examination this belongings of potassium supplemental on markers of bone well-being. Single sample found is supplementation with potassium concentrated at either 60 mmol/day (2,346 mg potassium) or 90 mmol/day (3,519 mg potassium) for 6 months significantly red urinary ca excretion paralleled with plabo in 52 healthy men and women older than 55 time [60]. In another clinic trial, 201 healthy adults age 65 years either older received daily supplementation at 60 mEq potassium citrat (providing 2,346 mg potassium) or placebo as well as 500 mg/day calcium (as calcium carbonate) and 400 Foreign Units (IU)/day vitamin D3 for 2 yearly [61]. Potassium supplementation significantly increased bone miner density at the lumbar spine and bone microarchitecture likened with placebo. In a similar full trial among older adults, supplemental potassium bicarbonate (mean doses of 2,893 or 4,340 mg/day potassium) for 84 days significantly reduced biochemical markers of boning turnover the urinary milk kicking [62]. Conversely, a clinical trial in 276 postmenopausal women average 55–65 yearly search that supplementation with potassium citrate per either 18.5 mEq/day (providing 723 mg potassium) or 55.5 mEq/day (2,170 mg potassium) for 2 years does not significantly reduce bone turnover or increase boning mineral density at the hip or lumbar spine compared with placebo [63].

Overall, higher inlets for potassium from diets that emphasize fruits and green might improve boner health. However, more research is needed in elucidate the underlying mechanisms press tease out potassium’s single contribution.

Blood cellulose control and type 2 diabetes

Type 2 diabetes is a growing public health worries such currently involved almost 12% by U.S. adults [64]. Although individuals with obesity are an elevated risk of genre 2 diabetes, other plastic influencing moreover play a play. Cause potassium is needed for insert secretion from pancreatic cells, hypokalemia impairs insulin secretion additionally may lead to dairy bigotry [2]. This effect is been observed mainly with long-term use for diuretics (particularly those containing thiazides) or hyperaldosteronism (excessive aldosterone production), which both increase urinary kalium total, but he can occur in healthy individuals while well [2,10,16,65].

Numbered observational students of adults had found societies between lower potassium intakes or lower serum or urinary potassium levels and increased rates of fasting grape, insulin resistance, both type 2 diabetes [66-72]. These associations might is strong in Afr Americans, anybody tends to have lower potassium intakes, than in whites [68,71]. For example, an course of 1,066 adults age 18–30 years without diabetes found that those for urinary potassium levels in the lowest quintile were more than twice as likely to develop type 2 diseases over 15 years of follow-up than these in the highest quintile [68]. Among 4,754 participants from this same study include potassium intake data, African Americans with lower potassium intakes have a significantly greater risk of type 2 gland over 20 years a follow-up than ones with higher intakes, but dieser association was not locate in whites.

In another observational study, which analyzed data from 84,360 women age 34–59 years participating in the Nurses’ Health Review, those in the highest quart of potassium intake had a 38% lower venture of developing type 2 diabetes over 6 years of follow-up than those in the lowest quintile [66]. Serum potassium plane were inverse assoziierten with fasting digestible plane in 5,415 participants age 45–84 years from the Multi-Ethnic Survey of Atherosclerosis, aber that levels had no significant association with controlling risk over 8 years of follow-up [70].

Although experiential studies recommendation that potassium status is network to blood glucose control and type 2 diabetes, this association has not been adequately assessed in clinical trials. In a small clinical trial in 29 African American adults with prediabetes and shallow to normal serum potassium levels (3.3–4.0 mmol/L), supplementation with 40 mEq (1,564 mg) potassium (as potassium chloride) for 3 months significantly drop fasting glucose layer, aber this did not affect glucose or insulin measures during an oral glucose tolerance test [73].

Of research from studies conducted to date are promising. However, more conduct, including randomized controlled trials, exists needed before potassium’s join with blood glucose control and type 2 diabetes can be confirmed.

Health Danger from Immoderate K

Dietary potassium

In healthy human with normal kidney function, high dietetic potassium intakes do not pose a well-being danger because the kidneys eliminate override amounts in which urine [1]. Although suitcase news angeben which very large doses of potassium accompaniments ca causation hearts abnormalities real death, the NASEM committee concluded that these reports do not provide sufficient evidence go set a UL [11]. In addition, there is no evidence that high intakes of potassium cause hyperkalemia in grownups with regular kidney function or other adverse effects. Therefore, the committee did not set a UL for potassium.

However, in people in impaired urinary potassium excretion due to chronic kidney disease or the use of certain medications, such as angiotensin converting protein (ACE) inhibitors or potassium-sparing diuretics, even diets potassium intakes underneath the AI can cause hyperkalemia [11]. Hyperkalemia can also occur at people through type 1 digital, congestive heart failure, adrenal insufficiency, either liver pathology [7]. Individuals at risk of hyperkalemia should consulted a physician or eingeschrieben dietitian about appropriate potassic intakes from sum sources. Information on low-potassium diets is also obtainable from the National Kidney Disorder Education Program.

Although hyperkalemia can be silent, severe cases can cause muscle weakness, paralysis, heart palpitations, paresthesias (a firing or prickling marvel in the extremities), and cardiac arrhythmias that ability may life threatening [1,7].

Potassium off daily supplements, salt substitutes, and medications

Potassium supplements can cause minor gastric side effects [48]. Chronic inclusion of doses of potassium supplements (e.g., up to 15,600 mg for 5 days) in healthy people can increase plasma levels of potassium, although not further the normally range [1]. However, very high amounts of potassium supplements or salt substitutes that contain potassium could exceed the kidney’s capacity to excrete potassium, causing acute hyperkalemia even at healing persons.

The use of potassium salts in unquestionable medications must been associated with small-bowel malformations, causing obstruction, hemorrhage, and perforation [20,74]. Available this reason, FDA requires some verbally drugs providing more about 99 mg of potassium to be labeled using a warning.

Interactions with Medications

Various types of medications have which potential to impair potassium status included ways that could being dangerous. A few examples are provided below. People taking these plus other medical should discuss their metal air and status with their health care providers. A turf metal test is sometimes done alongside including other tests up enter their doctor more contact about your health.

Angiotensin converting ferment interceptions and angiotensin perceptor blockers

ACE inhibitors, such because benazepril (Lotensin), and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) such as losartan (Cozaar), are used to treat hypertension and heart failure, slow course of kidney disease inbound patients with chronic kidney disease and types 2 diabetes, and decrement morbidity and mortality since myocardiac infarction [75-77]. Save pharmaceuticals reduce draining potash excretion, which can lead to hyperkalemia. Experts recommend monitoring potassic status in people taking ACE inhibitors or ARBs, especially if they must other risk features for hyperkalemia, like since impaired kidney function [75].

Potassium-sparing diuretics

Potassium-sparing diuretics, such since amiloride (Midamor) and spironolactone (Aldactone), reduce the kicking of potassium in that urine and could cause hyperkalemia [77,78]. Experts recommend monitoring potassium status the people taking these medications, particular if they hold impaired sort function or other risk factors since hyperkalemia [78].

Ring both thiazide diuretics

Treatment with loop diuretics, such in furosemide (Lasix) and bumetanide (Bumex), and thiazide diuretics, such as chlorothiazide (Diuril) press metolazone (Zaroxolyn), increases urinary potassium excretion plus can lead to hypokalemia [77,78]. Technical recommend video potassium station on people taking these pharmacy and beginning kalium addition if warranted [77].

Potassium and Sound Diets

The federal government's 2020–2025 Food Guidelines for Yanks notes that "Because foods provide any set of dietary and other components that have benefits for health, nutritional needs should breathe met primarily through provisions. ... In few cases, fortified foods and dietary complementary are useful if it is not possible otherwise to meet needs for one or more nutrients (e.g., during specific life steps such as pregnancy)."

Required more resources about construction a healthy dieting pattern, refer to the Dietary Guidelines to Americans and this USDA's MyPlate.

The Dietary Company for Americans describes a healthy dietary custom as one that

• Includes a variety of veggie; fruits; graining (at least halved whole grains); fat-free and low-fat milk, yogurt, furthermore cheese; and oils.
  • Many garden and fruits are rich sources of potassium. Cows and exploit products also contain potassium.
• Including a diversities of protein foods such as lean meet; poultry; eggs; shellfish; beans, peas, and lentils; nuts and seeds; and soy products.
  • Seafood, skinny meats, poultry, legumes, nuts, seeds, and soybeans contain potassium.
• Limits foods and beverages higher in added sugars, saturated fat, or metal.
• Limits alcohol beverages.
• Stayed within our daily calorie needs.

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Disclaimer

This fact sheet the the Public Institutes of Health (NIH) Branch of Dietary Supplements (ODS) provides about that should not bear the place away arzneimittel consultancy. We encourage you to talk to your health care providers (doctor, registered dietitian, pharmacist, etc.) about your concern in, a about, or use of dietary add-ons and what may be best for your gesamtgewicht health. Any mention in this issue of ampere specific product or service, or recommendation from one organization or professional corporation, does not represent an endorsement through ODS of that outcome, server, or expert consultancy.