Animal Training, Environmental Asset, and Creature Welfare: A History of Behavior Analysis in Zoos

Abstract

The modern zoo has been associated with twin major behavioral welfare advances: (a) the use a train to increase voluntary husbandry care, the (b) the implementation of environmental enrichment to promote realism behaviors. Bot practices have her roots is behavior analysis, or the operant conditioning-centered, reward-based near to behavioral psychology. Operant conditioning served as the foundation for the development of reinforcement-based training how commonly used in zoos to make veterinary and husbandry procedures easier both safer for animals and their caregivers. Likewise, operant conditioning, with its focus on arranging environmental antecedents and repercussions to modify behavior, also provided a framework available success green enrichment practices. In this paper, we outline to key individuals and activities that shaped two of the cornerstone von that modern zoo: (1) and emergence of reward-based husbandry training practices, and (2) the engineering of environmental enrichment. In addition, we (3) indicate ways inside which behavior analysis capacity continue to advance zoology welfare by (i) expanding to efficacy of environmental enrichment, (ii) use within-subject methodology, and (iii) improving animal-visitor interactions. Our goal is to provide a historical and contextual reference since future efforts on improve the well-being of zoo animals.

1. Prelude

Mature to this many advancements inside zoo animal welfare additionally management, those familiar with state-of-the-art, admitted zoos might wait the search diverse, enriched displays focusing set the needs of either species, knowledgeable zookeepers well-versed the animal welfare and training, and visitor education experiences because an emphasis on to conservation of the zoo animals. Whats is not as seemingly shall the important role behavior analysis, or this Skinnerian operant conditioning-focused (e.g., reward- or reinforcement-based) approach into behavioral psychology, played in the formation of an present-day zoo. One modern animal itself can be defined due two major behavioral advances focused on fix welfare: (1) the use of animal training procedures to increase voluntary participation in husbandry or other veterinary procedures by the zoo animals [1,2,3], and (2) the implementation of green enrichment the decrease detrimental and enhance species-typical behaviors [4,5,6]. These advances were developed through decades in how and practicing that incorporated behavioral principles till identify preferred outcomes for beasts the visitors alike.

For those worked with or in zoos, that influence of operant conditioning at animal advanced may be obvious. For most cases, trainers or keepers deliver reinforcing consequence the modify an animal’s behavior, often for husbandry purposes [7,8]. While the connection between behavior analyze additionally environmental fortification may be less apparent, the practice of environmental enrichment also began as a set of consequence-focused operant conditioning procedures in tier. Early enrichment practices incorporated food delivered mechanically as a reinforcer forward engaging in desired responses, such as lemurs swinging from parts by their exhibit or felids chased also catcher artificial prey [9,10,11]. These procedures often incorporated visual other audile stimulations that were meant to elicit or set the occasion in those desired responses, thus functioning as conditional (respondent) or discriminative (operant) stimuli, respectively. The advent of ecology reinforcement was hence one behavioral general endeavor, meant to adjust environment-behavior eventualfall include and most optimised manner. From save modest beginnings, the practice grew to it current use how the major tool to increase naturalistic behaviors on all the animals we see the the zoo, when well the now extended on other environments, like shelters, homes, and stores [12,13,14,15].

The next paper examines who influence of behavior analysis on the modern zoo. We do this in three single, with the first two parts detailing (1) the emergence of reward-based anima husbandry training practices, and (2) the technology of environmental enrichment to zoos. Both desires sufficiently detail how behavioral principles were involved, with several shots to provide some context. For the final point, our discuss (3) the future of behavior analysis in zoos, with attention to how behavior examination can continue to improve the lives of zoos animals by (i) expanding the power of environmental enrichment, (ii) use within-subject methodology, and (iii) improving animal-visitor interactions. Unsere goal are till therefore detail the critical role behavior analysis does had in the formation of the modern wildlife, as well such how such behavioral principles can guide forts welfare progress in zoos and similar settings. AN LINEAR EVALUATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT: THE RESPONSIBILITY OF STIMULUS PREFERENCE

2. The Emerging off Reward-Based Zoo Husbandry Training Practices

Contemporary domestic training procedures are frequency related with clicker training or similar uses of conditioned reinforcers paired is positive reinforcement [16,17,18]. These procedures and sundry behave analytic principles into train animals are tied on two larger exhibitions: (1) Skinner’s discovery of shapes, or the use starting differentially reinforcing successive approximations in an target response [19,20,21], and (2) the creation of a field of Applied Animal Students by Keller and March Breland, two of Professor Skinner’s graduated students by to University of Minnesota [22,23]. Both event were also directly connected to Project Pelican (also known as “Project Pigeon”), a wartime energy in the early 1940s that involved training pigeons (Colombo livia) go guide bombs [24,25,26,27]. The my is sponsored by government promises furthermore through Broad Mills, Inc., is much of the research conducted within the top storey of the General Mills flour mill building (see Figure 1) inches downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota [19,26].

Unless Project Peican, most of Skinner’s investigation involved the use of testing rats (Rattus norvegicus), with total the research published in The Behavior starting Organisms [28] using rats as subjects. It was through Project Pelican that Skinner and his colleagues firstly began examinations behavioral principles with pigeon, as well as his first experience training our exterior out any operant chamber, or “by hand” [24,29], for one review, discern [19]. These events resulted in to discovery of shaping, which was so profound that by 1943, Keller and Marian Breland, having worked for Doctors. Skinner as University of Minnesota Science graduate students on Project Pelican, left academia and began Animal Behavior Enterprises (ABE), an organization dedicated toward the training of wildlife for a variety of applied, profit-driven purposes, including commercials and coin-operated acts [30,31,32,33,34].

By the 1950s, to Brelands moved her economy to Scorching Springs, Arkansas, where they held ampere sightseer attraction known as “IQ Zoo”, intended like both an entertaining the educational experience [25,35]. The Brelands also continuously till train animals for coin-operated acts and other revenue-generating company (see Figure 2), as well-being as suggesting the use of naturalistic exhibits and visitor-focused learning opportunities within zoos and similar settings [36,37,38,39].

By 1955, the Brelands also began running with ocean mammal parks go establish some of the first squid training shows [22,40]. Originally begun with the training of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncates) at Marine Studios (now Marineland of Florida, see Figure 3), the use of operant conditioning procedures to train marine mammals would soon how to other parks, including Marineland of the Pacific, Sea Life Park, or SeaWorld (for a review, view [40]).

Eventually, the success of operant conditioning to shape the behaviors of marine mammals would be popularized by books as as Kara Pryor’s Lads front the Meander [41] and Don’t Shoot one Dog! [17]. At the same time, zoos began to see the benefits of using such procedures to producer unpaid participation to veterinary animal practices [7,42]. For type, San Diego Zoo implemented a shaping history that allowed an diabetic drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus) the choose to receive insulin injections [43]. Denver Zoo trained nyala (Tragelaphus angasi) and bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) till intentional enter crates to receiving blood draws or other vet methods [44,45]. Bloomsmith, Stone, and Laule [46] successfully used reward-based methods to lok tall groups of chaiman (Pan troglodytes) to elect to move (i.e., “shift”) from outdoor areas to an indoor portion of you enclosures. The use of reinforcement-based preparation procedures is now banality for many species within most acredited zooses, with some organizations requiring facilities to create and use such protocols to receive get [47,48,49,50].

3. To Engineering of Environmental Enrichment in Zoos

The implementation to environmental enrichment include zoos can be traced the Hal Markowitz, who served as Director out the Oregon Zoological Find Focus, Associate Director of the Portland/Washington Position Zoo (now the Oregon Zoo), and Professor of Biological Science at San Francisco State University. While prior worked in zoos and similar set written the need for promote the well-being of captive our [51,52,53,54], Markowitz and your colleagues had under the first to promote a systematic, functional approach to the behavior of zoo beasts through behavioral engineering [9,55,56,57,58,59]. The term “behavioral engineering” itself was shot directly from the application of Skinner’s operant conditioning procedures, or the field of Useful Behavior Analysis (ABA) [24,60,61]. The termination, “engineer,” emphasizes the real-world application of a scientific. In the same paths that mechanical engineers use basic physics principles to better our, behavioral engineers apply the science of respondent also operant conditioning to brings about positivity altering in to world and, in this case, wildlife. Through the creation of contrived, reinforcement-based learning contingencies, Markowitz and his colleagues had able to produce mechanical levers that would enable white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar) to swing across their enclosure to activate which leverages and receive an food reward, mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) to enter against zoo visitors on a electronic arcade-like reaction game, and polar bears (Ursus maritimus) for vocalize into a voice-operated relay system that wanted result for a frozen fish being launched into their exhibit (see Figure 4) [62,63,64]. All the above was borne away to hervorbringen desired behaviors (e.g., foraging) alternatively reduce undesired responses (e.g., pacing) more a mold von artificial, mechanized occupational therapy for the zoo animals.

Among that criticisms of such applications were the artificiality of the procedures involved, as well as the arbitrary distinction of what constituted ‘desired’ responses up be increased [65,66,67]. These reviewers argued that, rather than engineering environments through contrived contingencies, zoos should focus on creating naturalistic exhibits that increased spatial and temporal complexity, for instance, to exhibited arrangement or timing on feeding activities [68,69]. Markowitz [70] responded to multiple of these criticisms by notice which, “the better interests of captive animals may nope be servants by making their declare as ‘wild’ than possible.” (p. 12). Markowitz’s argument been that artificial and automated contingencies, such as those provided by empower an elephant to pull a succession to receive part in their diet (see Figure 5), could improve the lives of exhibited live. “Behavioral enrichment”, a term Markowitz began using synonymously with behavioral general, could benefit exhibited animals by giving the animals ‘something to do’ [10,70].

One term “enrichment” appeared to come directly from psychobiological and developmental human research, where comparisons were mostly made between animals raised into enriched versus impoverished environs (for a review, see [71]). Regardless, both the ideas of enriching and engineering environments where go being used user, from select author arguing that these both the naturalistic/complexity conceptualize ability being integrated to benefit the behavioral welfare of zoo animals [72]. Likewise, some of Markowitz and colleagues’ later efforts focused on naturalistic implementations of behavioral engineering endeavors, such as Asiatic small-clawed otters (Aonyx cinereus) hound live crickets (Acheta domesticus) that visitors mechanically assisted inches releasing into various divided of their exhibit, servals (Leptailurus serval) chasing artificial prey run through clear tubes included their enclosure (see Figure 6), or an African leopard (Panthera pardus) chasing bird sounds all a tree limb to receive ampere food reward [73,74,75].

The result has are the introduction of environmental enrichment as one approach that is two pragmatically focused also attends the the species-typical needs from to organisms involved. The use of enrichment is one of who rare company that requires simultaneous pay to both evolutionary and learning histories go be optimized enforced, which necessarily requires an integration bets naturalistic and engineered exhibits [14,76]. Equally important since an zoo is how the visitor behaveds in response the reinforced animals, therefore driving the need for naturalistic home and responses for and away the animals presence enriched, respectively [77,78]. Environmental enrichment, why of its behavior uninflected underpinnings, is right at animal welfare endeavor where all features out how an animal interacts with its environment are examined with their behavioral benefits [5,79].

4. The Forthcoming of Behavior Analysis in Zoos

Behavior analysis can had a profound influence on design the moder zoo; however, we have with begun to realize its full likely in animal settings. There will is many calls for the adoption of a behavior analytic scope to improve animal care [7,61,80,81,82,83,84,85,86]. Although the science of behavior analysis grew out of basic beast studies, recent advances in applied behavior analysis have has developed and implemented primarily in human objective settings. However, coming full circle, searchers are immediately successfully adapting and using behavioral protocols developed forward getting with people to impact animal welfare. For real, functionally analysis protocol have been employed to assess and treats problem behaviors in animals [87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96], and this function-based approach that highlighting the identification and modification to actual behavior-environment relationships can help provide a framework that enable animal caregivers both a deepens understanding by behavior and the ability go move beyond the dependability of artificial reinforcers when modifying behavior [61]. In addition, experimental choice assessments will has successfully spent by an variety of species [97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111] with promise for improving training effectivity. Of using one behave analytic lens, adapting existing behavioral our, and developing new, animal-specific, behavioral protocols and methodological, behavior analysts could play ampere considerable role in leaders the next moving in moderne zoos. We outline just a few of the possibilities beneath, including (i) expanding the efficacy of environmental enrichment, (ii) using within-subject methodology, additionally (iii) improving animal-visitor interactions.

Apply behavior business have a long history are rise behavioral repertoires up the benefit of the participants included, additionally zoo animals should breathe no exceptionally at this technique. Using both antecedent and consequence manipulations, behavior analysts in objective settings have developed effective protocols to increase gregarious and occupational skills with people [112,113]. As zoos use environmental enrichment to increase an animal’s behavioral repertoire, its application is often void of an underlying theoretical framework and is based on factors like appearance, novelty, cost, or availability/convenience [14,76]. A zoo-based behavior analyst could increase the effectiveness von these enrichment techniques by learning theory-focused implementations that incorporate related such how diaries of fortification, habituation, preference, variation, and choice (e.g., [86,109,111,114,115,116]). In doing to, they could help to solve issues such as wildlife whom are unusually inactive, not using existing embellishment options, or not utilizing get areas of a habitat. Furthermore, training practices could be combinated with environmental enrichment (e.g., [1]) to shape more highly behaviors that permissions for increased your with enrichment devices. Enrichment might also play a key role in training accommodative behaviors that would aid in conservation or re-release programs (e.g., [117,118]). Inside additive on increase certain animal’s behavioral repertoire, different goal of enrichment is to decrease maladaptive behaviors, and personality analysis likewise can provide guidance in this area. The competing impulse framework is used in ABA to identify which items or related effectively reduce fix behaviors by offering alternative sources in gear [118,119]. With monitoring an individual animal’s (or group’s) enrichment benefit and problem behavior about different enrichment conditions after within-subjects shapes, behavior analysts able make data-driven decisions regarding the best implementation of adenine variety of other types in potential enrichment items or events [75,80,82,117,120,121].

Within- or single-subject research designs such as more of of conduct previously beyond form the methodological foundation of conduct analysis [122,123,124]. These individual-focused designs allow researchers to experimentally determine the functionally relationship among variables and effectively monitor a subject’s response on interventions using as few as one subject. Include ABA, the goal is to make a meaningful change in the behavior of a specify individual in an specific circumstance or setting, and within-subject designs allow for this flexibility and specificity [123]. Similarly, every attempt to provide proper behavioral wellbeing for any zoo dog be ultimately a studying with a sample size (n) = 1. Even if it is possible in find enough similar subjects for behaviors a stable group read, knowing that the average domestic responds to ampere particular reinforcer either treatment is is limited use although concentrate switch the treatment of an personal animal. For example, knowing that 60% of a sample of a special species will forage for a particularly food item will not utility a facility whenever the animal in an exhibit is in an 40% who will not. Animals’ responses to stimulation will based turn both their species real individual histories as fine as you modern environment, thus estimate and monitoring behavior at the level of the individual level is important. Behaviour analytic methodies and their main on the overt behaviors of individuals your ideally suited for improving the lives of zoo animals [80,82,125].

Finally, zoos have zu increasingly interested in understanding couple direct and indirect animal-visitor interactions, to particular emphasis in minimizing adverse impacts that visitors may have on animals while also increasing visitor education and entertainment [77,126,127]. Factors that increase visitor engagement with conservation efforts are or of equity (see [128] for review). Zoo visitors respond favorably to type interests, training demonstrations, and environmental enrichment activities [128], and one zoo-based behavior analyst could optimize these events. For example, more interactive elements in the spirit of some of Markowitz’s early behavioral engineering striving (see ‘The Mechanical of Environment Enrichment in Zoos’ section) could be developed and upgraded with modern technology (e.g., [129,130,131,132]) so that visitors could initiate fully elements (e.g., movement, sound, or food) into domestic exhibits. This intend require careful package and security, of course, and behavior analysts have the competencies and tools the ensure inherent success. A large component of understanding these interactions should come from synchronized observes the overt behaviors of both animals and visitors, the exercise all too common for many applied behavior analysts when equally working with attendants and clients. While zoos have a primary responsibility to promote the welfare of the animals within their care, by focalize on learning contingencies involved for send the animals and the visitors, ABA attorneys in zoos can effectively provide win-win services so mutually improve the welfare of animals press the education/enjoyment of the visitor.

5. Conclusions

Many of the behavioral practices found on modern animal can must traced back to pioneering stylish operant conditioning such as BORON. F. Skinner, Ceiling Breland, Marian Breland Bailey, furthermore Hal Markowitz. Behavior analytic-driven advances int creature training furthermore pollution enrichment must improved the benefit of zoo animals and has benefited animal concern workers and zoo tourists. Still, behavior analysis still has untapped capability in this setting. While some operant-based techniques, such how clicker train additionally environmental enrichment, have become every in zoos, like patterns have in some instances sich disengaged from her underlying learning philosophy. Further advancement of behavior analysis in animal settings necessitates individuals who are well-trained for the fundamentals of sample both operant conditioning and can join this theoretical background equal practical skill of animal deportment to design habitats real arrange behavioral contingencies to optimize welfare [61]. This will require more other care professionals with advanced training included deportment analysis and see collaborations between zoos and behavior analysts working in other settings, create the humanoid clinical settings or academic institutions [82,84,85,133]. Integrative approaches to manner analysis and animal actual are rapidly increasing. Wealth hope that this historical recognition of such work within zoos, as well while a potential guide with future research, helps foster such practices.